British Culture - User contributions [en]

The miners' strike

2012-06-12T11:23:52Z

Arina: Created page with 'The Miners’ Strike was a mass protest of British miners that lasted from March 1984 to March 1985. It was fought in order to prevent the closure of coal mines announced by the …'

The Miners’ Strike was a mass protest of British miners that lasted from March 1984 to March 1985. It was fought in order to prevent the closure of coal mines announced by the government and also to save the miners jobs and the mining communities in the afflicted areas. It can also be regarded as a battle for power between the Trade Union movement and the Conservative government under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. After almost a year of striking action, the strike ended in a defeat for the miners and thus in a success for Thatcher that eventually diminished the power of the Trade Unions.

'''The preface'''

In the years prior to 1984 the British coal industry was already in decline due to cheaper coal imports from abroad and a change from coal firing to gas, oil and nuclear power for electricity needs. The coal industry had been nationalised in 1947 and was heavily subsidised by the government. Margaret Thatcher attempted to make the coal industry more effective by privatisation of the whole electricity sector and by closing down the mines that were regarded as unprofitable. A first attempt to close down coal mines was made in 1981, but the threat of a national strike by the miners made the government step down from the idea. They felt, they were not prepared to fight a battle with the Trade Unions yet. In 1983 Ian MacGregor was made manager of the National Coal Board (NCB) which was responsible for the coal industry. The miners were represented by the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM), led by Arthur Scargill, one of the most powerful and influential of the Trade Unions. Thatcher regarded the Trade Unions as “the Enemy Within” and took actions to minimise their power. The government took up measures to prepare for a national miners’ strike in stockpiling coal, in order to prevent blackouts as happened during the miners’ strike in 1974, and a shift from coal firing to oil firing for the important industries. On March 6 1984 it was announce that 20 mines would be closed, which would result in the loss of 20.000 jobs and it would leave the communities heavily dependant on the coal industry deprived.

'''The strike'''

The first strike actions started already on March 5 as the first news of the closures arrived at the pits. Miners in the Yorkshire area, regarded to be one of the most productive mines, were the first to go on strike. Other mines in the North of England, in Wales and Scotland soon followed. The first picketing started as early as March 6. A national strike was called for by NUM leader Arthur Scargill on March 12. However, in order to make a strike legal a national ballot had to be held, giving the miners the chance to vote for or against going on strike. Since not all miners were in favour of striking actions the NUM change its voting system from a 55% majority to single majority vote, but it did not call for a national ballot. Thus, the strike was declared unconstitutional in May 1984. By that time a large number of miners had joined the strike. On May 29/30 a violent clash between pickets and police forces broke out at the Orgreave coking plant, during which 83 people were arrested, among them Arthur Scargill, and 62 were injured. By August 1984 the first miners started to take up work again, since they got no wages and since the strike was illegal there was also a drastic shortage in benefits paid to the miners families. Talks for negotiations between the NUM and the NCB continued to fail. In September, the National Association of Colliery Overmen, Deputies and Shotfirers (NACODS) voted for joining the strike which would have bee a massive boost for the miners. However, after the National Coal Board made amends to them, they resigned from the strike action. By November more and more miners started to go back to work and by February 1985 half of the miners had taken up work again. In March 1985 the mines voted to go back to work again. Scargill blamed the Trade Unions for the failure of the strike for not supporting the miners.

'''The role of women in the strike'''

Women were already used to their men going on strike in order to fight for higher wages, but the miners strike was different because it was fought in order to safe the miners jobs and their communities instead of money. Women usually stayed at home, looked after the children and supported the miners at home, but this time they made more active attempts to support the miners. They started to set up soup kitchens, which took them out of their private isolation, trained them in organising and brought housework into public view. Women also went picketing with the men, where they encountered violence, abusive language and sexism, from the side of the police as well as the side of the miners. They also established groups to raise money, clothes and food for the miners’ families and they organised rallies and charities. One of these groups was Women Against Pit Closures, which was established to promote better education for working-class women, to support the miners and to be actively involved in the issues of the mining communities.

'''The aftermath'''

The miners’ strike was deemed a success for the Conservative government because it successfully diminished Trade Union power. The actions taken by the government managed to keep the effects of a national strike at a minimum and can thus be regarded as a victory for Thatcher’s politics. The closure of the pits went on as announced. In 1994 the coal industry was eventually privatised, creating a company known as UK Coal. In 1983 there had been 174 pits in Britain, by 2009 only six remained.

'''Sources:'''

Callinicos, Alex and Mike Simmons. ''The Great Strike. The Miners’ Strike of 1984-5 and its Lessons.'' London: Socialist Worker, 1985.

Hudson, Ray: ''The Changing Geography of the British Coal Industry: Nationalisation, Privatisation and the political Economy of the Energy Supply, 1947 - 1997.'' http://web.archive.org/web/20051203043628/http://www.sunderland.ac.uk/~os0hva/hud.htm (12.06.2012)

Wilsher, Peter, Donald Macintyre and Michael Jones. ''Strike. Thatcher, Scargill and the Miners.'' Sevenoaks: Coronet Books, 1985.

http://www.northern-soft.de/miners/ (12.06.2012)

http://www.thisisnottingham.co.uk/Timeline-miners-strike/story-12177397-detail/story.html (12.06.2012)

Edward III

2010-07-12T19:01:17Z

Arina:

November 13, 1312 - June 21, 1377. King of England 1327-1377.

==Life==

Edward III was born as the eldest son of Edward II and Isabella of France on 13th of November 1312. He became King of England at the age of 14 after his father was deposed and executed. His guardian was Henry, Earl of Lancaster, but actually it was Queen Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer who ruled the country for the following four years. Edward assumed government in 1330 when he and some of his followers invaded Nottingham Castle and took Mortimer prisoner. Mortimer was later executed and Isabella was exiled from court.

Edward married his cousin Philippa of Hainault in 1328. The couple had twelve children of which nine survied. Two of his sons, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and Edmund of Langley, Duke of York became the founders of the houses York and Lancaster.

Edward founded the Order of the Garter in 1348.

After the death of Philippa Edward began to fall under the influence of his mistress Alice Perrers. He died on 21st of June 1377 in Sheen Castle after suffering from a stroke. He is burried in Westminster Abbey.

==War with Scotland==

Edward spent many years of his reign with warfare. He renewed the war with Scotland that his grandfather, Edward I, started and repudiated the Treaty of Northampton from 1328 which resulted in the Second War of Scottish Independence. In 1333, Edward won against the Scots at the Battle of Hallidon Hill. David II, King of Scots and son of Robert the Bruce, went to exile in France and Edward Balliol was set on the throne of Scotland. However, the victories in Scotland were not lasting. By 1337 most of the country was again in the hands of David II.
In 1346, David II and his army were defeated in the Battle of Neville's Cross. David was imprisoned in the Tower of London. After eleven years of imprisonment he was released and allowed to return to Scotland.

==War with France==

Edward had several reasons for starting a war with France. Not only did the French support Scotland, Edward also claimed the French throne himself through his mother Isabella.
In 1337 Edward started what should later be known as the Hundred Years War (1337-1453). He defeated the French in the naval battle at Sluys, but was also successful at land campaigns.
In 1346 Edward started a new campaign in Normandy and defeated the French in the Battle of Crécy. In 1356, Edward the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III, was victorious at Poitier, where he took the French King John II prisoner.
By relinquishing his claim to the French throne, Edward managed, in the Treaty of Bretigny (1360), to retain Aquitaine, Pothieu and Calais for England.

==Sources==
[1] http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/plantagenet_7.htm (11.07.2010)
[2] http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon32.html (11.07.2010)
[3] http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/ThePlantagenets/EdwardIII.aspx (11.07.2010)
[4] http://www.nndb.com/people/315/000093036/ (11.07.2010)

Edward III

2010-07-12T18:57:37Z

Arina: Created page with 'November 13, 1312 - June 21, 1377. King of England 1327-1377. ==Life== Edward III was born as the eldest son of Edward II and Isabella of France on 13th of November 1312. He be…'

November 13, 1312 - June 21, 1377. King of England 1327-1377.

==Life==

Edward III was born as the eldest son of Edward II and Isabella of France on 13th of November 1312. He became King of England at the age of 14 after his father was deposed and executed. His guardian was Henry, Earl of Lancaster, but actually it was Queen Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer who ruled the country for the following four years. Edward assumed government in 1330 when he and some of his followers invaded Nottingham Castle and took Mortimer prisoner. Mortimer was later executed and Isabella was exiled from court.

Edward married his cousin Philippa of Hainault in 1328. The couple had twelve children of which nine survied. Two of his sons, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and Edmund of Langley, Duke of York became the founders of the houses York and Lancaster.

Edward founded the Orde of the Garter in 1348.

After the death of Philippa Edward began to fall under the influence of his mistress Alice Perrers. He died on 21st of Jume 1377 in Sheen Castle after suffering from a stroke. He is burried in Wstminster Abbey.

==War with Scotland==

Edward spent many years of his reign with warfare. He renewed the war with Scotland that his grandfather, Edward I, started and repudiated the Treaty of Northampton from 1328 which resulted in the Scond War of Scottish Independence. In 1333, Edward won against the Scots at the Battle of Hallidon Hill. David II, King of Scots and son of Robert the Bruce, went to exile in France and Edward Balliol was set on the throne of Scotland. However, the victories in Scotland were not lasting. By 1337 most of the country was again in the hands of David II.
In 1346, David II and his army were defeated in the Battle of Neville's Cross. David was imprisoned in the Tower of London. After eleven years of imprisonment he was released and allowed to return to Scotland.

==War with France==

Edward had several reasons for starting a war with France. Not only did the French support Scotland, Edward also claimed the French throne himself through his mother Isabella.
In 1337 Edward started what should later be known as the Hundred Years War (1337-1453). He defeated the French in the naval battle at Sluys, but was also successful at land campaigns.
In 1346 Edward started a new campaign in Normandy and defeated the French in the Battle of Crécy. In 1356, Edward the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III, was victorious at Poitier, where he took the French King John II prisoner.
By relinquishing his claim to the French throne, Edward managed, in the Treaty of Bretigny (1360), to retain Aquitaine, Pothieu and Calais for England.

==Sources==
[1] http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/plantagenet_7.htm (11.07.2010)
[2] http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon32.html (11.07.2010)
[3] http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/ThePlantagenets/EdwardIII.aspx (11.07.2010)
[4]

Royal Standard

2010-05-31T17:22:53Z

Arina:

The Royal Standard is the flag representing the monarch and the United Kingdom. It is flown from buildings and vehicles when the monarch is actually present. In the absence of the monarch, the Union Jack is flown instead.

==Use==

The Royal Standard is flown when the monarch stays in one of the official residences, on his/her car during official journeys and on aircraft. Additionally, with permission and by request of the proprietor, it may also be flown from any public or private building when he monarch is on visit. However, the Royal Standard may not be flown from ecclesiastical buildings.[1]

In contrast to other flags, the Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast. This is due to the fact that, even if a monarch has died, there is always a monarch on the throne.[2]

==Appearance==

The Royal Standard is in use since the Union of Crowns in 1603, but its appearance has changed several times.

The current Royal Standard is made of four quarterings. The first and fourth quartering, set on the upper left and lower right, show the three lions passant which represents England. The second quartering shows a red lion rampant for Scotland. The third quartering then shows a golden harp which represents Ireland.[3]

A slightly different version of the Royal Standard is used in Scotland. Here, the first and fourth quartering show the red lion rampant for Scotland, while the second quartering shows the three lions passant for England. The position of the harp representing Ireland remains unchanged.

Wales has a special position within the United Kingdom since it is a Principality, represented by the Pince of Wales, not a seperate kingdom. Wales has been included in the Royal Arms before the England's union with Scotland and Ireland and is therefore not represented in the Royal Standard.[4]

==Other Uses==

Differnt variants of the Royal Standard are in use to represent other members of the Royal Family.[5]

== Sources ==
[1], [2], [4] http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/Symbols/RoyalStandard.aspx (31.05.2010)

[3], [5] http://www.thamesweb.co.uk/windsor/windsorhistory/castle/flagsandflagstaff.html (31.05.2010)

Crown Jewels

2010-05-03T19:37:35Z

Arina:

The Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the Regalia, contain a number of items used at the coronation of a King or Queen. The collection includes, among other pieces, several crowns, sceptres, swords, orbs and robes. They are kept in the Jewel House of the Tower of London for safety storage.

==History==
Some pieces of the original Regalia could once be dated back to the times of Edward the Confessor. However, most of these items have been destroyed and melted down during the Civil War of 1642-1649. Oliver Cromwell ordered the destruction of the Regalia after the execution of King Charles I in 1649 because "Cromwell was determined that these potent symbols of royalty and kingship should be completely eradicated"[1]. When Monarchy was restored in 1660, new Regalia were ordered, which were modelled after the lost one.

The Crown Jewels were originally kept at Westminster Abbey for safety storage. After they were stolen from there, the place was deemed unsafe. The Crown Jewels then were relocated to the Tower of London where they have been stored from the early fourteenth century until today.[2]

==The Regalia==
Various crowns belong to the collection of the Crown Jewels, although not all of them are used during the coronation ceremony.
The most significant crown for the ceremony is [[Edward the Confessor|St Edward]]'s Crown, which is used by the Archbishop of Canterbury to crown a King or Queen. This crown replaced the original crown destroyed by Cromwell.

The Imperial State Crown is the most famous crown of the collection. It has been remade at a number of occasions, the last time for the coronation of King [[George VI]] in 1937. It is worn by the sovereign at the end of the coronation ceremony and at the State Opening of Parliament. The Imperial State crown is encrusted with a number of famous stones including the Second Star of Africa, the Black Prince's Ruby and Queen Elizabeth's Pearls.[3]

The Golden Ampulla and Spoon, which is one of the few items that survived the destruction of the original Regalia, are used to anoint the Monarch with holy oil.

Also, a number of swords are used during the ceremony. The Great Sword of State, the Sword of Temporal Justice and the Sword of Mercy are carried before the Monarch on entering Westminster Abbey. The Sword of Offering is placed on the altar after the anointment.

Some items of the Regalia have a highly symbolic meaning. The Sceptre with a Cross represents the Monarch's temporal power under God. The Sceptre with a Dove represents equity and mercy. The Sovereign's Orb represents Christ's dominion over the world. The Spurs represent knightly chivalry, although they are not worn during the ceremony, and the Armills (bracelets) represent sincerity and wisdom.[4]

==Sources==
[1],[2],[4] http://www.royal.gov.uk/The%20Royal%20Collection%20and%20other%20collections/TheCrownJewels/Overview.aspx (03.05.2010)

[3] http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/crown_jewels.htm (03.05.2010)

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Crown Jewels

2010-05-03T17:29:19Z

Arina:

The Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the Regalia, contain a numner of items used at the coronation of a King or Queen. The collection includes, among other pieces, several crowns, sceptres, swords, orbs and robes. They are kept in the Jewel House of the Tower of London for safety storage.

==History==
Some pieces of the original Regalia could once be dated back to the times of Edward the Confessor. However, most of these items have been destroyed and melted down during the Civil War of 1649/50. Oliver Cromwell ordered the destruction of the Regalia after the execution of King Charles I in 1649 because "Cromwell was determined that these potent symbols of royalty and kingship should be completely eradicated"[1]. When Monarchy was restored in 1660, a new Regalia was ordered, which was modelled after the lost one.

The Crown Jewels were originally kept at Westminster Abbey for safety storage. Aftewr they were stolen from there, the place was deemed unsafe. The Crown Jewels then were relocated to the Tower of London where they have bben stored from the early fourteenth century until today.[2]

==The Regalia==
Various crowns belong to the collection of the Crown Jewels, although not all of them are used during the coronation ceremony.
The most significant crown for the ceremony is St. Edward's Crown, which is used by the Archbishop of Canterbury to crown a King or Queen. This crown replaced the original crown destroyed by Cromwell.

The Imperial State Crown is the most famous crown of the collection. It has been remade at a number of occasions, the last time for the coronation of King George VI in 1937. It is worn by the Sovereign at the end of the coronation ceremony and at the Opening of Parliament. The Imperial State crown is encrusted with a number of famous stones including the Second Star of Africa, the Black Prince's Ruby and Queen Elizabeth's Pearls.[3]

The Golden Ampulla and Spoon, which is one of the few items that survived the destruction of the original Regalia, is used to annoint the Monarch with holy oil.

Also, a number of swords are used during the ceremony. The Great Sword of State, the Sword of Temporal Justice and the Sword of Mercy are carried before the Monarch at the entering of Westminster Abbey. The Sword of Offering is placed on the altar after the annointment.

Some items of the Regalia have a highly symbolic meaning. The Sceptre with a Cross represents the Monarch's temporal power under God. The Sceptre with a Dove represents equity and mercy. The Sovereign's Orb represents Christ's dominion over the world. The Spurs represent knightly chivalry, although they are not worn during the ceremony, and the Armills (bracelets) represent sincerity and wisdom.[3]

==Sources==
[1],[2],[4] http://www.royal.gov.uk/The%20Royal%20Collection%20and%20other%20collections/TheCrownJewels/Overview.aspx (03.05.2010)

[3] http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/crown_jewels.htm (03.05.2010)

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Crown Jewels

2010-05-03T17:11:47Z

Arina: Created page with 'The Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the Regalia, contain a numner of items used at the coronation of a King or Queen. The collection includes, among o…'

The Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the Regalia, contain a numner of items used at the coronation of a King or Queen. The collection includes, among other pieces, several crowns, sceptres, swords, orbs and robes. They are kept in the Jewel House of the Tower of London for safety storage.

==History==
Some pieces of the original Regalia could once be dated back to the times of Edward the Confessor. However, most of these items have been destroyed and melted down during the Civil War of 1649/50. Oliver Cromwell ordered the destruction of the Regalia after the execution of King Charles I in 1649 because "Cromwell was determined that these potent symbols of royalty and kingship should be completely eradicated"[1]. When Monarchy was restored in 1660, a new Regalia was ordered, which was modelled after the lost one.

The Crown Jewels were originally kept at Westminster Abbey for safety storage. In 1303 they were stolen from the place and although most of the pieces could be retrieved later, the place was deemed unsafe. The Crown Jewels then were relocated to the Tower of London where they are stored until today.

==The Regalia==
Various crowns belong to the collection of the Crown Jewels, although not all of them are used during the coronation ceremony.
The most significant crown for the ceremony is St. Edward's Crown, which is used by the Archbishop of Canterbury to crown a King or Queen. This crown replaced the original crown destroyed by Cromwell.

The Imperial State Crown is the most famous crown of the collection. It has been remade at a number of occasions, the last time for the coronation of King George VI in 1937. It is worn by the Sovereign at the end of the coronation ceremony and at the Opening of Parliament. The Imperial State crown is encrusted with a number of famous stones including the Second Star of Africa, the Black Prince's Ruby and Queen Elizabeth's Pearls.[2]

The Golden Ampulla and Spoon, which is one of the few items that survived the destruction of the original Regalia, is used to annoint the Monarch with holy oil.

Also, a number of swords are used during the ceremony. The Great Sword of State, the Sword of Temporal Justice and the Sword of Mercy are carried before the Monarch at the entering of Westminster Abbey. The Sword of Offering is placed on the altar after the annointment.

Some items of the Regalia have a highly symbolic meaning. The Sceptre with a Cross represents the Monarch's temporal power under God. The Sceptre with a Dove represents equity and mercy. The Sovereign's Orb represents Christ's dominion over the world. The Spurs represent knightly chivalry, although they are not worn during the ceremony, and the Armills (bracelets) represent sincerity and wisdom.[3]

==Sources==
[1],[3] http://www.royal.gov.uk/The%20Royal%20Collection%20and%20other%20collections/TheCrownJewels/Overview.aspx (03.05.2010)

[2] http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/crown_jewels.htm (03.05.2010)

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