British Culture - User contributions [en]

Emmeline Pankhurst

2012-01-04T18:53:50Z

Azim:

14 July 1858-14 June 1928. One of the leading figures in the suffrage movement. She established the Woman Franchise League in 1889 and the more radical [[WSPU|Women's Social and Political Union]] in 1903. Mother of [[Sylvia Pankhurst]].

== Youth ==

Emmeline was born July 14th, 1858 in Manchester as the first of ten children of Robert Goulden and Sophia Crane. Her father had radical political views and was part of the movement against slavery. Robert Goulden was also a supporter of [[John Stuart Mill]] and his campaign to equal vote for men and women. Her mother was a feminist, who took her daughter to suffrage meetings when she was in her early teens. In 1868, Emmeline and her younger sister were part of a feminist demonstration at the General Election. Emmeline was sent to a school in Paris in 1873, where her education was further encouraged with subjects such as science and bookkeeping. At the age of nineteen, she came back to Manchester and her family as a mature lady.

== Marriage ==

In 1879, she married Richard Pankhurst, a twenty-four year older lawyer and supporter of the women's suffrage movement. He had been responsible for the [[Municipal Franchise Act]] of 1869 that allowed unmarried women householders to vote in local elections. Following with the [[Married Women's Property Acts]] in 1870 and 1882, he made it possible for women to keep their belongings and income. They had four children:

*'''1880''' Christabel
*'''1882''' Sylvia
*'''1884''' Frank
*'''1885''' Adela

== Women's Franchise League ==

The Pankhursts moved to London in 1886, where their home became a meeting point for socialists and suffragists; their children were directly involved in political matters. Both, Emmeline and Robert were members of the [[Fabian society]]. 1889, Emmeline founded the [[Women's Franchise League]], which aim was to keep up the women's right to vote in local elections.

Emmeline and Richard returned to Manchester in 1893 to work for the new Independent Labour Party (ILP). Visits to the Chorlton Workhouse made it clear to Emmeline that the situation of the women could only be changed by equal right to vote; she arranged meetings, which were later declared illegal.

Richard's death in 1898 was a severe drawback: Emmeline had to sell their house, move to a cheaper accommodation and work as a registrar for births and deaths.

== WSUP ==

In 1903, Emmeline, supported by her daughters, founded the WSPU - the [[Women's Social and Political Union]]. In 1905, when the media lost interest in the movement, the suffragettes came up with more militant methods to enforce their purpose; e.g. in June 1908, suffragettes threw stones through the government building windows and twenty-seven women were arrested. WSUP's methods became even more drastic and in 1913, Emily Davison, a WSUP member, was killed when she attempted to grab the king's horse at the annual Derby. Emmeline was arrested several times for her activities. She went on hunger strike, which ended in force-feeding. In 1913, the government released The Prisoners Temporary Discharge for Ill Health Act an act - known as Cat and Mouse Act - that granted every hunger striking person release until they were strong enough to be rearrested.

WSUP activities were ended by the outbreak of WWI. On August 10, all imprisoned suffragettes were released in return for the end of the militant activities and their effort in the war. 1918, the [[Representation of the People Act]] gave women over 30 the right to vote.

Emmeline went to the USA and Canada. When she returned in 1925, she joined the conservative party, which brought her into trouble with her daughter Sylvia. Emmeline, together with two other women, started to run an unsuccessful tea shop at the French Riviera, and they returned to England in early 1926.

June 14th 1928, Emmeline died in a nursery home shortly after women were granted equal vote with men (at the age of 21).

== Sources ==

*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*BBC History: Emmeline Pankhurst. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/pankhurst_emmeline.shtml [04.01.2012]
*Spartakus Educationa: Emmeline Pankhurst. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WpankhurstE.htm [04.01.2012]

Emmeline Pankhurst

2012-01-04T18:29:02Z

Azim:

14 July 1858-14 June 1928. One of the leading figures in the suffrage movement. She established the Woman Franchise League in 1889 and the more radical [[WSPU|Women's Social and Political Union]] in 1903. Mother of [[Sylvia Pankhurst]].

== Youth ==

Emmeline was born July 14th, 1858 in Manchester as the first of ten children of Robert Goulden and Sophia Crane. Her father had radical political views and was part of the movement against slavery. Robert Goulden was also a supporter of [[John Stuart Mill]] and his campaign to equal vote for men and women. Her mother was a feminist, who took her daughter to suffrage meetings, when she was in her early teens. In 1868, Emmeline and her younger sister were part of a feminist demonstration at the General Election.

1873, Emmeline was sent to a school in Paris, which encouraged the girl's education with science and bookkeeping. At the age of nineteen, she came back to Manchester and her family as a mature lady.

== Marriage ==

In 1879, she married Richard Pankhurst, a twenty-four year older lawyer and supporter of the women's suffrage movement. He had been responsible for the [[Municipal Franchise Act]] of 1869 that allowed unmarried women householders to vote in local elections. Following with the [[Married Women's Property Acts]] (1870, 1882), he made it possible for women to keep their belongings and their income they had before and after marriage. They had four children:

*'''1880''' Christabel
*'''1882''' Sylvia
*'''1884''' Frank
*'''1885''' Adela

== Women's Franchise League ==

The Pankhurst moved to London in 1886, where their home became a meeting point for socialists and suffragists; their children were directly involved in political matters. Both, Emmeline and Robert were members of the [[Fabian society]]. 1889, Emmeline founded the [[Women's Franchise League]], which aim was to keep up the women's right to vote in local elections.

Emmeline and Richard returned to Manchester in 1893 to work for the new Independent Labour Party (ILP). Visits to the Chorlton Workhouse made it clear to Emmeline that the situation of the women could only be changed by equal right to vote; she arranged meetings, which were later declared illegal.

Richard's death in 1898 was a severe drawback: Emmeline had to sell their house, move to a cheaper accommodation and work as a registrar for births and deaths.

== WSUP ==

In 1903, Emmeline, supported by her daughters founded the WSPU - the [[Women's Social and Political Union]] - which later became known for its activities. In 1905, when the media lost interest in the movement, the suffragettes came up with more militant methods to enforce their purpose; e.g. in June 1908, suffragettes threw stones through the government building windows and twenty-seven women were arrested. WSUP's methods became even more drastic and in 1913, Emily Davison, a WSUP member, was killed when she attempted to grab the king's horse at the annual Derby.
Emmeline was arrested several times for her activities. She went on hunger strike, which ended in force-feeding. In 1913, the government released The Prisoners Temporary Discharge for Ill Health Act an act - known as Cat and Mouse Act - that granted every hunger striking person release until they were strong enough to be rearrested.

WSUP activities were ended by the outbreak of WWI. On August 10, all imprisoned suffragettes were released in return for the end of the militant activities and their effort in the war. 1918, the [[Representation of the People Act]] gave women over 30 the right to vote.

Emmeline went to the USA and Canada. When she returned in 1925, she joined the conservative party, which brought her into trouble with her daughter Sylvia. Emmeline, together with two other women, started to run an unsuccessful tea shop at the French Riviera, and they returned to England in early 1926.

June 14th 1928, Emmeline died in a nursery home shortly after women were granted equal vote with men (at the age of 21).

== Sources ==

*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*BBC History: Emmeline Pankhurst. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/pankhurst_emmeline.shtml [04.01.2012]
*Spartakus Educationa: Emmeline Pankhurst. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WpankhurstE.htm [04.01.2012]

Fabian society

2012-01-04T18:27:39Z

Azim: Created page with 'British socialist movement foundend January 4, 1884.'

British socialist movement foundend January 4, 1884.

Emmeline Pankhurst

2012-01-04T18:25:29Z

Azim:

14 July 1858-14 June 1928. One of the leading figures in the suffrage movement. She established the Woman Franchise League in 1889 and the more radical [[WSPU|Women's Social and Political Union]] in 1903. Mother of [[Sylvia Pankhurst]].

== Youth ==

Emmeline was born July 14th, 1858 in Manchester as the first of ten children of Robert Goulden and Sophia Crane. Her father had radical political views and was part of the movement against slavery. Robert Goulden was also a supporter of [[John Stuart Mill]] and his campaign to equal vote for men and women. Her mother was a feminist, who took her daughter to suffrage meetings, when she was in her early teens. In 1868, Emmeline and her younger sister were part of a feminist demonstration at the General Election.

1873, Emmeline was sent to a school in Paris, which encouraged the girl's education with science and bookkeeping. At the age of nineteen, she came back to Manchester and her family as a mature lady.

== Marriage ==

In 1879, she married Richard Pankhurst, a twenty-four year older lawyer and supporter of the women's suffrage movement. He had been responsible for the [[Municipal Franchise Act]] of 1869 that allowed unmarried women householders to vote in local elections. Following with the [[Married Women's Property Acts]] (1870, 1882), he made it possible for women to keep their belongings and their income they had before and after marriage. They had four children:

*'''1880''' Christabel
*'''1882''' Sylvia
*'''1884''' Frank
*'''1885''' Adela

== Women's Franchise League ==

The Pankhurst moved to London in 1886, where their home became a meeting point for socialists and suffragists; their children were directly involved in political matters. Both, Emmeline and Robert were members of the [[Fabian Society]]. 1889, Emmeline founded the [[Women's Franchise League]], which aim was to keep up the women's right to vote in local elections.

Emmeline and Richard returned to Manchester in 1893 to work for the new Independent Labour Party (ILP). Visits to the Chorlton Workhouse made it clear to Emmeline that the situation of the women could only be changed by equal right to vote; she arranged meetings, which were later declared illegal.

Richard's death in 1898 was a severe drawback: Emmeline had to sell their house, move to a cheaper accommodation and work as a registrar for births and deaths.

== WSUP ==

In 1903, Emmeline, supported by her daughters founded the WSPU - the [[Women's Social and Political Union]] - which later became known for its activities. In 1905, when the media lost interest in the movement, the suffragettes came up with more militant methods to enforce their purpose; e.g. in June 1908, suffragettes threw stones through the government building windows and twenty-seven women were arrested. WSUP's methods became even more drastic and in 1913, Emily Davison, a WSUP member, was killed when she attempted to grab the king's horse at the annual Derby.
Emmeline was arrested several times for her activities. She went on hunger strike, which ended in force-feeding. In 1913, the government released The Prisoners Temporary Discharge for Ill Health Act an act - known as Cat and Mouse Act - that granted every hunger striking person release until they were strong enough to be rearrested.

WSUP activities were ended by the outbreak of WWI. On August 10, all imprisoned suffragettes were released in return for the end of the militant activities and their effort in the war. 1918, the [[Representation of the People Act]] gave women over 30 the right to vote.

Emmeline went to the USA and Canada. When she returned in 1925, she joined the conservative party, which brought her into trouble with her daughter Sylvia. Emmeline, together with two other women, started to run an unsuccessful tea shop at the French Riviera, and they returned to England in early 1926.

June 14th 1928, Emmeline died in a nursery home shortly after women were granted equal vote with men (at the age of 21).

== Sources ==

*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*BBC History: Emmeline Pankhurst. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/pankhurst_emmeline.shtml [04.01.2012]
*Spartakus Educationa: Emmeline Pankhurst. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WpankhurstE.htm [04.01.2012]

Emmeline Pankhurst

2012-01-04T17:03:34Z

Azim:

Orlando

2011-12-08T18:24:16Z

Azim:

Novel by [[Virginia Woolf]], first published in 1928. One protagonist, two sexes, 400 years, a poem and a house. Very funny. Highly recommended as the perfect read over Christmas.

[[Category:Expansion]]

Also available as an arthouse movie under the same title, starring Tilda Swinton and Billy Zane.

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-07T21:27:01Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

The theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes have influenced theoretical discussions and the economy policy all over the world. His name is connected with what is called "macroeconomics" today. Two of his suggestions were especially effective: the use of varying exchange rates as means of economy policy und the recommendation to fight unemployment with limited inflation. After 1918, he fought the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the allied reparation policy.

== Childhood and Youth ==

John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge on June 5, 1883. Keynes grew up in Victorian and Edwardian times; prices and interest rates were relatively stable. His childhood was formed by his father, John Neville Keynes, a philosopher, economist and administrator at university and his mother, Florence Ada, an early graduate of Cambridge University, active member of charity and later major of the city. Keynes was the oldest of three siblings. Already at the age of 4 ½, Keynes replied when asked what interest is: “If I let you have a halfpenny and you kept it a very long time, you would have to give me back that halfpenny and another too. That is interest.” (Sills, 114)

His upbringing was traditional: nanny, kindergarten, elementary school, followed by Eton and classical and mathematical studies at King’s College. His mathematics teacher saw him as talented, but also remarked his lack of patience when difficulties arise. During his school time he won several prizes, e.g. Eton’s Junior Mathematical Prize (1898), Eton's Senior Prize (1900). At King’s College, he engaged in several debating and intellectual societies, which were to shape him more than his formal studies. His later development was clearly influenced by his membership in the [[Bloomsbury Group]]. He was also an active sportsman. In the final examinations, he scored 12th. In 1903, he entered a secret society called Apostel.

== War ==

1916, the Government introduced the official duty for all men age 18-41. As an officer at the Financial Ministry, Keynes was excluded from this regulation; for reasons of conscience he applied again for dispensation. But for his fellow members from the [[ Bloomsbury Group]], his engagement in financing the war was already too much. His way to protest was to lay down his office and to write ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''.

== Global Economic Crisis ==

1919, the global economic crisis hit Britain and a Labour Government which was not up to this situation. From 1931-1935, a National Government was formed under Labour Premier Ramsey McDonald, involving liberal and conservative ministers. During this phase, the influence of Keynes’ theories was noticeable. Contrary to the traditional theory of budget consolidation, the Government prioritised the establishment of jobs through public projects.

== Marriage ==

In 1925, he married Lydia Lopakowa (1892-1981), a Russian ballet dancer.

== Return to the Gold Standard ==

When [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]], Chancellor of the Exchequer, reintroduced the gold standard in 1929, it was seen as a step back towards Britain’s old economic reputation. This was welcomed across the board but by Keynes. Already in 1919, he had warned about the ''Economic Consequences of the Peace'', claiming that the reparations demanded by Versailles were exessive. Now, he warned about the “Economic Consequences of Mr Churchill” (Brüggemeier, 139). Meaning that as a matter of principle the return to the gold standard was appropriate, but the fixed exchange rate was too high and would be an additional burden for the already weakened economy.

== Underconsumption ==

Keynes picked up the idea of underconsumption, which was introduced around 1890 by the economist [[John A. Hobson]]. It said that in a capitalist economy the production increases faster than the demand. Under the influence of the global economic crisis, Keynes worked out his thoughts and pleat for an increase in the demand during crisis situations.

== Britain - A Great Nation ==

Keynes, who was familiar with the economic difficulties of Britain, noticed: “We are a great nation, but if we continue to behave like a Great Power, we shall soon cease to be a great nation” (Brüggemeier, 230). But this only seems to be logical at first glance because although Britain was no longer a world power after the war, it was still a great power and superior to the other European states which were struck even harder.

== Ministry of Finance ==

In July 1940, Keynes was nominated special adviser of the Ministry of Finance. From then, his arguments got a bigger audience and he could introduce his new budget, which did not only list the income and expenditure of the Government but included additonal data. This was an important base for the establishment of the [[Welfare State]] in 1945. In 1945, Keynes negotiated a agreement with the USA and Canada; this credit allowed Britain to meet the most important responsibilities.

== Ennoblement ==

In 1942, Keyens was ennobled Lord Keynes or Baron Keynes of Tilton.

== Health ==

Already during his early school years, Keynes suffered from ill health, keeping him away from classes. These illesses reoccur during his further education, and in 1937, he suffered his first heart attack, followed by another serious illness. After he was awarded the Order of Merit and became a member of the [[Royal Society]], Keynes died on April 21, 1946 in Tilton, Sussex of heart failure.

== Selection of his Publications ==

*'''1919''' ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''
*'''1921''' ''A Treatise of Probability''
*'''1922''' ''A Revision of the Treaty''
*'''1923''' ''A Tract on Monetary Reform''
*'''1925''' ''Am I Liberal?''
*'''1930''' ''A Treatise on Money''
*'''1936''' ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money''
*'''1940''' ''How to Pay for the War''

== Sources ==

*Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef. ''Geschichte Großbrittaniens im 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 2010.
*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*Moggridge, Donald. ''John Maynard Keynes''. München: dtv, 1977.
*Sills, David L. and Merton, Robert K., ed. ''Social Science Quotations. Who said What, When, and Where''. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2000.

*John Maynard Keynes. Timeline. http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html December 6, 2011

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-07T21:25:24Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

The theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes have influenced theoretical discussions and the economy policy all over the world. His name is connected with what is called "macroeconomics" today. Two of his suggestions were especially effective: the use of varying exchange rates as means of economy policy und the recommendation to fight unemployment with limited inflation. After 1918, he fought the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the allied reparation policy.

== '''Childhood and Youth''' ==

John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge on June 5, 1883. Keynes grew up in Victorian and Edwardian times; prices and interest rates were relatively stable. His childhood was formed by his father, John Neville Keynes, a philosopher, economist and administrator at university and his mother, Florence Ada, an early graduate of Cambridge University, active member of charity and later major of the city. Keynes was the oldest of three siblings. Already at the age of 4 ½, Keynes replied when asked what interest is: “If I let you have a halfpenny and you kept it a very long time, you would have to give me back that halfpenny and another too. That is interest.” (Sills, 114)

His upbringing was traditional: nanny, kindergarten, elementary school, followed by Eton and classical and mathematical studies at King’s College. His mathematics teacher saw him as talented, but also remarked his lack of patience when difficulties arise. During his school time he won several prizes, e.g. Eton’s Junior Mathematical Prize (1898), Eton's Senior Prize (1900). At King’s College, he engaged in several debating and intellectual societies, which were to shape him more than his formal studies. His later development was clearly influenced by his membership in the [[Bloomsbury Group]]. He was also an active sportsman. In the final examinations, he scored 12th. In 1903, he entered a secret society called Apostel.

== '''War''' ==

1916, the Government introduced the official duty for all men age 18-41. As an officer at the Financial Ministry, Keynes was excluded from this regulation; for reasons of conscience he applied again for dispensation. But for his fellow members from the [[ Bloomsbury Group]], his engagement in financing the war was already too much. His way to protest was to lay down his office and to write ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''.

== '''Global Economic Crisis''' ==

1919, the global economic crisis hit Britain and a Labour Government which was not up to this situation. From 1931-1935, a National Government was formed under Labour Premier Ramsey McDonald, involving liberal and conservative ministers. During this phase, the influence of Keynes’ theories was noticeable. Contrary to the traditional theory of budget consolidation, the Government prioritised the establishment of jobs through public projects.

== '''Marriage''' ==

In 1925, he married Lydia Lopakowa (1892-1981), a Russian ballet dancer.

== '''Return to the Gold Standard''' ==

When [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]], Chancellor of the Exchequer, reintroduced the gold standard in 1929, it was seen as a step back towards Britain’s old economic reputation. This was welcomed across the board but by Keynes. Already in 1919, he had warned about the ''Economic Consequences of the Peace'', claiming that the reparations demanded by Versailles were exessive. Now, he warned about the “Economic Consequences of Mr Churchill” (Brüggemeier, 139). Meaning that as a matter of principle the return to the gold standard was appropriate, but the fixed exchange rate was too high and would be an additional burden for the already weakened economy.

== '''Underconsumption''' ==

Keynes picked up the idea of underconsumption, which was introduced around 1890 by the economist [[John A. Hobson]]. It said that in a capitalist economy the production increases faster than the demand. Under the influence of the global economic crisis, Keynes worked out his thoughts and pleat for an increase in the demand during crisis situations.

== '''Britain - A Great Nation''' ==

Keynes, who was familiar with the economic difficulties of Britain, noticed: “We are a great nation, but if we continue to behave like a Great Power, we shall soon cease to be a great nation” (Brüggemeier, 230). But this only seems to be logical at first glance because although Britain was no longer a world power after the war, it was still a great power and superior to the other European states which were struck even harder.

== '''Ministry of Finance''' ==

In July 1940, Keynes was nominated special adviser of the Ministry of Finance. From then, his arguments got a bigger audience and he could introduce his new budget, which did not only list the income and expenditure of the Government but included additonal data. This was an important base for the establishment of the [[Welfare State]] in 1945. In 1945, Keynes negotiated a agreement with the USA and Canada; this credit allowed Britain to meet the most important responsibilities.

== '''Ennoblement''' ==

In 1942, Keyens was ennobled Lord Keynes or Baron Keynes of Tilton.

== '''Health''' ==

Already during his early school years, Keynes suffered from ill health, keeping him away from classes. These illesses reoccur during his further education, and in 1937, he suffered his first heart attack, followed by another serious illness. After he was awarded the Order of Merit and became a member of the [[Royal Society]], Keynes died on April 21, 1946 in Tilton, Sussex of heart failure.

== Selection of his Publications ==

*'''1919''' ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''
*'''1921''' ''A Treatise of Probability''
*'''1922''' ''A Revision of the Treaty''
*'''1923''' ''A Tract on Monetary Reform''
*'''1925''' ''Am I Liberal?''
*'''1930''' ''A Treatise on Money''
*'''1936''' ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money''
*'''1940''' ''How to Pay for the War''

== Sources ==

*Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef. ''Geschichte Großbrittaniens im 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 2010.
*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*Moggridge, Donald. ''John Maynard Keynes''. München: dtv, 1977.
*Sills, David L. and Merton, Robert K., ed. ''Social Science Quotations. Who said What, When, and Where''. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2000.

*John Maynard Keynes. Timeline. http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html December 6, 2011

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-07T21:22:27Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

The theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes have influenced theoretical discussions and the economy policy all over the world. His name is connected with what is called "macroeconomics" today. Two of his suggestions were especially effective: the use of varying exchange rates as means of economy policy und the recommendation to fight unemployment with limited inflation. After 1918, he fought the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the allied reparation policy.

'''Childhood and Youth'''

John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge on June 5, 1883. Keynes grew up in Victorian and Edwardian times; prices and interest rates were relatively stable. His childhood was formed by his father, John Neville Keynes, a philosopher, economist and administrator at university and his mother, Florence Ada, an early graduate of Cambridge University, active member of charity and later major of the city. Keynes was the oldest of three siblings. Already at the age of 4 ½, Keynes replied when asked what interest is: “If I let you have a halfpenny and you kept it a very long time, you would have to give me back that halfpenny and another too. That is interest.” (Sills, 114)

His upbringing was traditional: nanny, kindergarten, elementary school, followed by Eton and classical and mathematical studies at King’s College. His mathematics teacher saw him as talented, but also remarked his lack of patience when difficulties arise. During his school time he won several prizes, e.g. Eton’s Junior Mathematical Prize (1898), Eton's Senior Prize (1900). At King’s College, he engaged in several debating and intellectual societies, which were to shape him more than his formal studies. His later development was clearly influenced by his membership in the [[Bloomsbury Group]]. He was also an active sportsman. In the final examinations, he scored 12th. In 1903, he entered a secret society called Apostel.

'''War'''

1916, the Government introduced the official duty for all men age 18-41. As an officer at the Financial Ministry, Keynes was excluded from this regulation; for reasons of conscience he applied again for dispensation. But for his fellow members from the [[ Bloomsbury Group]], his engagement in financing the war was already too much. His way to protest was to lay down his office and to write ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''.

'''Global Economic Crisis'''

1919, the global economic crisis hit Britain and a Labour Government which was not up to this situation. From 1931-1935, a National Government was formed under Labour Premier Ramsey McDonald, involving liberal and conservative ministers. During this phase, the influence of Keynes’ theories was noticeable. Contrary to the traditional theory of budget consolidation, the Government prioritised the establishment of jobs through public projects.

'''Marriage'''

In 1925, he married Lydia Lopakowa (1892-1981), a Russian ballet dancer.

'''Return to the Gold Standard'''

When [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]], Chancellor of the Exchequer, reintroduced the gold standard in 1929, it was seen as a step back towards Britain’s old economic reputation. This was welcomed across the board but by Keynes. Already in 1919, he had warned about the ''Economic Consequences of the Peace'', claiming that the reparations demanded by Versailles were exessive. Now, he warned about the “Economic Consequences of Mr Churchill” (Brüggemeier, 139). Meaning that as a matter of principle the return to the gold standard was appropriate, but the fixed exchange rate was too high and would be an additional burden for the already weakened economy.

'''Underconsumption'''

Keynes picked up the idea of underconsumption, which was introduced around 1890 by the economist [[John A. Hobson]]. It said that in a capitalist economy the production increases faster than the demand. Under the influence of the global economic crisis, Keynes worked out his thoughts and pleat for an increase in the demand during crisis situations.

'''Britain - A Great Nation'''

Keynes, who was familiar with the economic difficulties of Britain, noticed: “We are a great nation, but if we continue to behave like a Great Power, we shall soon cease to be a great nation” (Brüggemeier, 230). But this only seems to be logical at first glance because although Britain was no longer a world power after the war, it was still a great power and superior to the other European states which were struck even harder.

'''Ministry of Finance'''

In July 1940, Keynes was nominated special adviser of the Ministry of Finance. From then, his arguments got a bigger audience and he could introduce his new budget, which did not only list the income and expenditure of the Government but included additonal data. This was an important base for the establishment of the [[Welfare State]] in 1945. In 1945, Keynes negotiated a agreement with the USA and Canada; this credit allowed Britain to meet the most important responsibilities.

'''Ennoblement'''

In 1942, Keyens was ennobled Lord Keynes or Baron Keynes of Tilton.

'''Health'''

Already during his early school years, Keynes suffered from ill health, keeping him away from classes. These illesses reoccur during his further education, and in 1937, he suffered his first heart attack, followed by another serious illness. After he was awarded the Order of Merit and became a member of the [[Royal Society]], Keynes died on April 21, 1946 in Tilton, Sussex of heart failure.

==Selection of his Publications==

*'''1919''' ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''
*'''1921''' ''A Treatise of Probability''
*'''1922''' ''A Revision of the Treaty''
*'''1923''' ''A Tract on Monetary Reform''
*'''1925''' ''Am I Liberal?''
*'''1930''' ''A Treatise on Money''
*'''1936''' ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money''
*'''1940''' ''How to Pay for the War''

== Sources ==

*Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef. ''Geschichte Großbrittaniens im 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 2010.
*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*Moggridge, Donald. ''John Maynard Keynes''. München: dtv, 1977.
*Sills, David L. and Merton, Robert K., ed. ''Social Science Quotations. Who said What, When, and Where''. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2000.

*John Maynard Keynes. Timeline. http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html December 6, 2011

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-07T21:20:24Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

The theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes have influenced theoretical discussions and the economy policy all over the world. His name is connected with what is called "macroeconomics" today. Two of his suggestions were especially effective: the use of varying exchange rates as means of economy policy und the recommendation to fight unemployment with limited inflation. After 1918, he fought the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the allied reparation policy.

'''under construction'''

'''Childhood and Youth'''

John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge on June 5, 1883. Keynes grew up in Victorian and Edwardian times; prices and interest rates were relatively stable. His childhood was formed by his father, John Neville Keynes, a philosopher, economist and administrator at university and his mother, Florence Ada, an early graduate of Cambridge University, active member of charity and later major of the city. Keynes was the oldest of three siblings. Already at the age of 4 ½, Keynes replied when asked what interest is: “If I let you have a halfpenny and you kept it a very long time, you would have to give me back that halfpenny and another too. That is interest.” (Sills, 114)

His upbringing was traditional: nanny, kindergarten, elementary school, followed by Eton and classical and mathematical studies at King’s College. His mathematics teacher saw him as talented, but also remarked his lack of patience when difficulties arise. During his school time he won several prizes, e.g. Eton’s Junior Mathematical Prize (1898), Eton's Senior Prize (1900). At King’s College, he engaged in several debating and intellectual societies, which were to shape him more than his formal studies. His later development was clearly influenced by his membership in the [[Bloomsbury Group]]. He was also an active sportsman. In the final examinations, he scored 12th. In 1903, he entered a secret society called Apostel.

'''War'''

1916, the Government introduced the official duty for all men age 18-41. As an officer at the Financial Ministry, Keynes was excluded from this regulation; for reasons of conscience he applied again for dispensation. But for his fellow members from the [[ Bloomsbury Group]], his engagement in financing the war was already too much. His way to protest was to lay down his office and to write ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''.

'''Global Economic Crisis'''

1919, the global economic crisis hit Britain and a Labour Government which was not up to this situation. From 1931-1935, a National Government was formed under Labour Premier Ramsey McDonald, involving liberal and conservative ministers. During this phase, the influence of Keynes’ theories was noticeable. Contrary to the traditional theory of budget consolidation, the Government prioritised the establishment of jobs through public projects.

'''Marriage'''

In 1925, he married Lydia Lopakowa (1892-1981), a Russian ballet dancer.

'''Return to the Gold Standard'''

When [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]], Chancellor of the Exchequer, reintroduced the gold standard in 1929, it was seen as a step back towards Britain’s old economic reputation. This was welcomed across the board but by Keynes. Already in 1919, he had warned about the ''Economic Consequences of the Peace'', claiming that the reparations demanded by Versailles were exessive. Now, he warned about the “Economic Consequences of Mr Churchill” (Brüggemeier, 139). Meaning that as a matter of principle the return to the gold standard was appropriate, but the fixed exchange rate was too high and would be an additional burden for the already weakened economy.

'''Underconsumption'''

Keynes picked up the idea of underconsumption, which was introduced around 1890 by the economist [[John A. Hobson]]. It said that in a capitalist economy the production increases faster than the demand. Under the influence of the global economic crisis, Keynes worked out his thoughts and pleat for an increase in the demand during crisis situations.

'''Britain - A Great Nation'''

Keynes, who was familiar with the economic difficulties of Britain, noticed: “We are a great nation, but if we continue to behave like a Great Power, we shall soon cease to be a great nation” (Brüggemeier, 230). But this only seems to be logical at first glance because although Britain was no longer a world power after the war, it was still a great power and superior to the other European states which were struck even harder.

'''Ministry of Finance'''

In July 1940, Keynes was nominated special adviser of the Ministry of Finance. From then, his arguments got a bigger audience and he could introduce his new budget, which did not only list the income and expenditure of the Government but included additonal data. This was an important base for the establishment of the [[Welfare State]] in 1945. In 1945, Keynes negotiated a agreement with the USA and Canada; this credit allowed Britain to meet the most important responsibilities.

'''Ennoblement'''

In 1942, Keyens was ennobled Lord Keynes or Baron Keynes of Tilton.

'''Health'''

Already during his early school years, Keynes suffered from ill health, keeping him away from classes. These illesses reoccur during his further education, and in 1937, he suffered his first heart attack, followed by another serious illness. After he was awarded the Order of Merit and became a member of the [[Royal Society]], Keynes died on April 21, 1946 in Tilton, Sussex of heart failure.

==Selection of his Publications==

*'''1919''' ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''
*'''1921''' ''A Treatise of Probability''
*'''1922''' ''A Revision of the Treaty''
*'''1923''' ''A Tract on Monetary Reform''
*'''1925''' ''Am I Liberal?''
*'''1930''' ''A Treatise on Money''
*'''1936''' ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money''
*'''1940''' ''How to Pay for the War''

== Sources ==

*Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef. ''Geschichte Großbrittaniens im 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 2010.
*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*Moggridge, Donald. ''John Maynard Keynes''. München: dtv, 1977.
*Sills, David L. and Merton, Robert K., ed. ''Social Science Quotations. Who said What, When, and Where''. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2000.

*John Maynard Keynes. Timeline. http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html December 6, 2011

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-07T21:02:11Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

The theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes have influenced theoretical discussions and the economy policy all over the world. His name is connected with the theoretical establishment was is called "macroeconomics" today. Two of his suggestions were especially effective: the use of changing exchange rates as means of economy policy und the recommendation to fight unemployment with limited inflation. His thoughts were social; some call him socialist, others saviour of capitalism. After 1918, he fought the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the allied reparation policy.

'''under construction'''

'''Childhood and Youth'''

John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge on June 5, 1883. Keynes grew up in Victorian and Edwardian times; prices and interest rates were relatively stable. His childhood was formed by his father, John Neville Keynes, a philosopher, economist and administrator at university and his mother, Florence Ada, an early graduate of Cambridge University, active member of charity and later major of the city. Keynes was the oldest of three siblings.Already at the age of 4 ½, Keynes replied when asked what interest is: “If I let you have a halfpenny and you kept it a very long time, you would have to give me back that halfpenny and another too. That is interest.” (Sills, 114)

His upbringing was traditional: nanny, kindergarten, elementary school, followed by Eton and classical and mathematical studies at King’s College. His mathematics teacher sees him as talented, but also remarks his lack of patience when difficulties arise. During his school time he wins several prizes, e.g. Eton’s Junior Mathematical Prize (1898), Eton's Senior Prize (1900). At King’s College, he engages in several debating and intellectual societies, which are going to shape him more than his formal studies. His later development was clearly influenced by his membership in the [[Bloomsbury Group]]. He is also an active sportsman. In the final examinations, he scored 12th. In 1903, he entered a secret society called Apostel.

'''War'''

1916, the Government introduced the official duty for all men age 18-41. As an officer at the Financial Ministry, Keynes was excluded from this regulation; for reasons of conscience he applied again for dispensation. But for his fellow members from the [[ Bloomsbury Group]], his engagement in financing the war was already too much. His way to protest was to lay down his office and to write ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''.

'''Global Economic Crisis'''

1919, the global economic crisis hit Britain and a Labour Government which was not up to this situation. From 1931-1935, a National Government was formed under Labour Premier Ramsey McDonald, involving liberal and conservative ministers. During this phase, the influence of Keynes’ theories was noticeable. Contrary to the traditional theory of budget consolidation, the Government prioritised the establishment of jobs through public projects.

'''Marriage'''

In 1925, he married Lydia Lopakowa (1892-1981), a Russian ballet dancer.

'''Return to the Gold Standard'''

When [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]], Chancellor of the Exchequer, reintroduced the gold standard in 1929, it was seen as a step towards back to Britain’s old economic reputation. This was welcomed across the board but by Keynes. Already in 1919, had he warned of the “Economic Consequences of the Peace” (Brüggemeier, 139), claiming that the reparations demanded by Versailles were too high. Now, he warned of the “Economic Consequences of Mr Churchill” (Brüggemeier, 139). Meaning that as a matter of principle the return to the gold standard was appropriate, but the fixed exchange rate was too high and would be an additional burden for the already weakened economy.

'''Underconsumption'''

Keynes picked up the idea of underconsumption, which was introduced around 1890 by the economist [[John A. Hobson]]. It said that in a capitalist economy the production increases faster than the demand. Under the influence of the global economic crisis, Keynes worked out his thoughts and pleat for an increase of the demand during crisis situations.

'''Britain - A Great Nation'''

Keynes, who was familiar with economic difficulties of Britain very well, noticed: “We are a great nation, but if we continue to behave like a Great Power, we shall soon cease to be a great nation” (Brüggemeier, 230). But this only seems to be logical at first glance because although Britain was no longer a world power after the war, it was still a great power and superior to the other European states which were struck even harder.

'''Ministry of Finance'''

In July 1940, Keynes was nominated special adviser of the Ministry of Finance. From then, his arguments got a bigger audience and he could introduce his new budget, which did not only list the income and expenditure of the Government but included more data. This was an important substructure for the establishment of the Welfare State in 1945.
In 1945, Keynes negotiated a Credit Agreement with the USA and Canada. This credit allowed Britain to manage the most important responsibilities.

'''Ennoblement'''

In 1942, Keyens was ennobled as Lord Keynes or Baron Keynes of Tilton.

'''Health'''

Already during his education at school, Keynes suffered from an ill health, which kept him away from classes. The illesses reoccur during his further education and in 1937, he suffered his first heart attack, followed by a serious illness. After he was awarded the Order of Merit and became a member of the [[Royal Society]], Keynes died on April 21, 1946 in Tilton, Sussex of heart failure.

==Selection of his Publications==

*'''1919''' ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''
*'''1921''' ''A Treatise of Probability''
*'''1922''' ''A Revision of the Treaty''
*'''1923''' ''A Tract on Monetary Reform''
*'''1925''' ''Am I Liberal?''
*'''1930''' ''A Treatise on Money''
*'''1936''' ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money''
*'''1940''' ''How to Pay for the War''

== Sources ==

*Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef. ''Geschichte Großbrittaniens im 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 2010.
*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*Moggridge, Donald. ''John Maynard Keynes''. München: dtv, 1977.
*Sills, David L. and Merton, Robert K., ed. ''Social Science Quotations. Who said What, When, and Where''. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2000.

*John Maynard Keynes. Timeline. http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html December 6, 2011

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-07T21:01:33Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

The theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes have influenced theoretical discussions and the economy policy all over the world. His name is connected with the theoretical establishment was is called "macroeconomics" today. Two of his suggestions were especially effective: the use of changing exchange rates as means of economy policy und the recommendation to fight unemployment with limited inflation. His thoughts were social; some call him socialist, others saviour of capitalism. After 1918, he fought the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the allied reparation policy.

'''under construction'''

'''Childhood and Youth'''

John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge on June 5, 1883. Keynes grew up in Victorian and Edwardian times; prices and interest rates were relatively stable. His childhood was formed by his father, John Neville Keynes, a philosopher, economist and administrator at university and his mother, Florence Ada, an early graduate of Cambridge University, active member of charity and later major of the city. Keynes was the oldest of three siblings.Already at the age of 4 ½, Keynes replied when asked what interest is: “If I let you have a halfpenny and you kept it a very long time, you would have to give me back that halfpenny and another too. That is interest.” (Sills, 114)

His upbringing was traditional: nanny, kindergarten, elementary school, followed by Eton and classical and mathematical studies at King’s College. His mathematics teacher sees him as talented, but also remarks his lack of patience when difficulties arise. During his school time he wins several prizes, e.g. Eton’s Junior Mathematical Prize (1898), Eton's Senior Prize (1900). At King’s College, he engages in several debating and intellectual societies, which are going to shape him more than his formal studies. His later development was clearly influenced by his membership in the [[Bloomsbury Group]]. He is also an active sportsman. In the final examinations, he scored 12th. In 1903, he entered a secret society called Apostel.

'''War'''

1916, the Government introduced the official duty for all men age 18-41. As an officer at the Financial Ministry, Keynes was excluded from this regulation; for reasons of conscience he applied again for dispensation. But for his fellow members from the [[ Bloomsbury Group]], his engagement in financing the war was already too much. His way to protest was to lay down his office and to write ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''.

'''Global Economic Crisis'''

1919, the global economic crisis hit Britain and a Labour Government which was not up to this situation. From 1931-1935, a National Government was formed under Labour Premier Ramsey McDonald, involving liberal and conservative ministers. During this phase, the influence of Keynes’ theories was noticeable. Contrary to the traditional theory of budget consolidation, the Government prioritised the establishment of jobs through public projects.

'''Marriage'''

In 1925, he married Lydia Lopakowa (1892-1981), a Russian ballet dancer.

'''Return to the Gold Standard'''

When [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]], Chancellor of the Exchequer, reintroduced the gold standard in 1929, it was seen as a step towards back to Britain’s old economic reputation. This was welcomed across the board but by Keynes. Already in 1919, had he warned of the “Economic Consequences of the Peace” (Brüggemeier, 139), claiming that the reparations demanded by Versailles were too high. Now, he warned of the “Economic Consequences of Mr Churchill” (Brüggemeier, 139). Meaning that as a matter of principle the return to the gold standard was appropriate, but the fixed exchange rate was too high and would be an additional burden for the already weakened economy.

'''Underconsumption'''

Keynes picked up the idea of underconsumption, which was introduced around 1890 by the economist [[John A. Hobson]]. It said that in a capitalist economy the production increases faster than the demand. Under the influence of the global economic crisis, Keynes worked out his thoughts and pleat for an increase of the demand during crisis situations.

'''Britain - A Great Nation'''

Keynes, who was familiar with economic difficulties of Britain very well, noticed: “We are a great nation, but if we continue to behave like a Great Power, we shall soon cease to be a great nation”(Brüggemeier, 230). But this only seems to be logical at first glance because although Britain was no longer a world power after the war, it was still a great power and superior to the other European states which were struck even harder.

'''Ministry of Finance'''

In July 1940, Keynes was nominated special adviser of the Ministry of Finance. From then, his arguments got a bigger audience and he could introduce his new budget, which did not only list the income and expenditure of the Government but included more data. This was an important substructure for the establishment of the Welfare State in 1945.
In 1945, Keynes negotiated a Credit Agreement with the USA and Canada. This credit allowed Britain to manage the most important responsibilities.

'''Ennoblement'''

In 1942, Keyens was ennobled as Lord Keynes or Baron Keynes of Tilton.

'''Health'''

Already during his education at school, Keynes suffered from an ill health, which kept him away from classes. The illesses reoccur during his further education and in 1937, he suffered his first heart attack, followed by a serious illness. After he was awarded the Order of Merit and became a member of the [[Royal Society]], Keynes died on April 21, 1946 in Tilton, Sussex of heart failure.

==Selection of his Publications==

*'''1919''' ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''
*'''1921''' ''A Treatise of Probability''
*'''1922''' ''A Revision of the Treaty''
*'''1923''' ''A Tract on Monetary Reform''
*'''1925''' ''Am I Liberal?''
*'''1930''' ''A Treatise on Money''
*'''1936''' ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money''
*'''1940''' ''How to Pay for the War''

== Sources ==

*Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef. ''Geschichte Großbrittaniens im 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 2010.
*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*Moggridge, Donald. ''John Maynard Keynes''. München: dtv, 1977.
*Sills, David L. and Merton, Robert K., ed. ''Social Science Quotations. Who said What, When, and Where''. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2000.

*John Maynard Keynes. Timeline. http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html December 6, 2011

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-07T20:40:05Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

The theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes have influenced theoretical discussions and the economy policy all over the world. Two of his suggestions were especially effective: the use of changing exchange rates as means of economy policy und the recommendation to fight unemployment with limited inflation. His thoughts were social; some call him socialist, others saviour of capitalism. After 1918, he fought the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the allied reparation policy.

'''under construction'''

'''Childhood and Youth'''

John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge on June 5, 1883. Keynes grew up in Victorian and Edwardian times; prices and interest rates were relatively stable. His childhood was formed by his father, John Neville Keynes, a philosopher, economist and administrator at university and his mother, Florence Ada, an early graduate of Cambridge University, active member of charity and later major of the city. Keynes was the oldest of three siblings.Already at the age of 4 ½, Keynes replied when asked what interest is: “If I let you have a halfpenny and you kept it a very long time, you would have to give me back that halfpenny and another too. That is interest.” (Sills, 114)

His upbringing was traditional: nanny, kindergarten, elementary school, followed by Eton and classical and mathematical studies at King’s College. His mathematics teacher sees him as talented, but also remarks his lack of patience when difficulties arise. During his school time he wins several prizes, e.g. Eton’s Junior Mathematical Prize (1898), Eton's Senior Prize (1900). At King’s College, he engages in several debating and intellectual societies, which are going to shape him more than his formal studies. His later development was clearly influenced by his membership in the [[Bloomsbury Group]]. He is also an active sportsman. In the final examinations, he scored 12th. In 1903, he entered a secret society called Apostel.

'''Health'''

Already during his education at school, Keynes suffered from an ill health, which kept him away from classes. The illesses reoccur during his further education and in 1937, he suffers his first heart attack.

'''War'''

1916, the Government introduced the official duty for all men age 18-41. As an officer at the Financial Ministry, Keynes was excluded from this regulation; for reasons of conscience he applied again for dispensation. But for his fellow members of the [[ Bloomsbury Group]], his engagement in financing the war was already too much. His way to protest was to lay down his office and to write ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''.

'''Marriage'''

In 1925, he married Lydia Lopakowa (1892-1981), a Russian ballet dancer.

'''Ennoblement'''

In 1942, Keyens was ennobled as Lord Keynes or Baron Keynes of Tilton.

'''Global economic crisis'''

'''Underconsumption'''

'''Return to the golden standard'''

'''A great nation'''

'''Ministry of Finance'''

==Selection of his Publications==

*'''1919''' ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''
*'''1921''' ''A Treatise of Probability''
*'''1922''' ''A Revision of the Treaty''
*'''1923''' ''A Tract on Monetary Reform''
*'''1930''' ''A Treatise on Money''
*'''1940''' ''How to Pay for the War''

== Sources ==

*Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef. ''Geschichte Großbrittaniens im 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 2010.
*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*Moggridge, Donald. ''John Maynard Keynes''. München: dtv, 1977.
*Sills, David L. and Merton, Robert K., ed. ''Social Science Quotations. Who said What, When, and Where''. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2000.

*John Maynard Keynes. Timeline. http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html December 6, 2011

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-07T20:32:18Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

The theories of the British economist John Maynard Keynes have influenced theoretical discussions and the economy policy all over the world. Two of his suggestions were especially effective: the use of changing exchange rates as means of economy policy und the recommendation to fight unemployment with limited inflation. His thoughts were social; some call him socialist, others saviour of capitalism. After 1918, he fought the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the allied reparation policy.

'''under construction'''

'''Childhood and Youth'''

John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge on June 5, 1883. Keynes grew up in Victorian and Edwardian times; prices and interest rates were relatively stable. His childhood was formed by his father, John Neville Keynes, a philosopher, economist and administrator at university and his mother, Florence Ada, an early graduate of Cambridge University, active member of charity and later major of the city. Keynes was the oldest of three siblings.Already at the age of 4 ½, Keynes replied when asked what interest is: “If I let you have a halfpenny and you kept it a very long time, you would have to give me back that halfpenny and another too. That is interest.” (Sills, 114)

His upbringing was traditional: nanny, kindergarten, elementary school, followed by Eton and classical and mathematical studies at King’s College. His mathematics teacher sees him as talented, but also remarks his lack of patience when difficulties arise. During his school time he wins several prizes, e.g. Eton’s Junior Mathematical Prize (1898), Eton's Senior Prize (1900). At King’s College, he engages in several debating and intellectual societies, which are going to shape him more than his formal studies. His later development was clearly influenced by his membership in the [[Bloomsbury Group]]. He is also an active sportsman. In the final examinations, he scored 12th. In 1903, he entered a secret society called Apostel.

'''War'''

1916, the Government introduced the official duty for all men age 18-41. As an officer at the Financial Ministry, Keynes was excluded from this regulation; for reasons of conscience he applied again for dispensation. But for his fellow members of the [[ Bloomsbury Group]], his engagement in financing the war was already too much. His way to protest was to lay down his office and to write ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''.

'''Global economic crisis'''

'''Underconsumption'''

'''Return to the golden standard'''

'''A great nation'''

'''Ministry of Finance'''

==Selection of his Publications==

*'''1919''' ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace''
*'''1921''' ''A Treatise of Probability''
*'''1922''' ''A Revision of the Treaty''
*'''1923''' ''A Tract on Monetary Reform''
*'''1930''' ''A Treatise on Money''
*'''1940''' ''How to Pay for the War''

== Sources ==

*Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef. ''Geschichte Großbrittaniens im 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 2010.
*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*Moggridge, Donald. ''John Maynard Keynes''. München: dtv, 1977.
*Sills, David L. and Merton, Robert K., ed. ''Social Science Quotations. Who said What, When, and Where''. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2000.

*John Maynard Keynes. Timeline. http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html December 6, 2011

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-06T22:30:09Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

[[Category:Expansion]]

'''under construction'''

'''Childhood and Youth'''

John Maynard Keynes was born in Cambridge on June 5, 1883. His father lectured economy at Cambridge University and his mother - one of the first female graduates- was an active member of charity, later major of the city. Already at the age of 4 ½, Keynes replied when asked what interest is: “If I let you have a halfpenny and you kept it a very long time, you would have to give me back that halfpenny and another too. That is interest.” (Sills, 114)

Keynes does very well in St. Faith preparatory school. His mathematics teacher sees him as talented, but also remarks his lack of patience when difficulties arise. In 1896, the headmaster of the school recommends a scholarship for Eton, which Keynes eventually gets a year later. His ill health, which has already interfered with his school education, reoccurs during university, resulting in absence from classes. In 1898, he wins Eton’s Junior Mathematical Prize and the Senior Prize in 1900. Other Prizes are to follow.

In 1902, Keynes begins as an undergraduate at King’s College. There, he engages in several debating and intellectual societies, which are going to shape him more than his formal studies. He is also an active sportsman.
In the final examinations, he scores 12th.

'''Global economic crisis'''

'''Underconsumption'''

'''Return to the golden standard'''

'''A great nation'''

'''Ministry of Finance'''

== Sources ==

*Brüggemeier, Franz-Josef. ''Geschichte Großbrittaniens im 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 2010.
*Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
*Sills, David L. and Merton, Robert K., ed. ''Social Science Quotations. Who said What, When, and Where''. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2000.

*John Maynard Keynes. Timeline. http://www.maynardkeynes.org/keynes-career-timeline.html December 6, 2011

John Maynard Keynes

2011-12-06T21:30:09Z

Azim:

1883-1946. Economist. Member of the [[Bloomsbury Group]].

[[Category:Expansion]]

'''under construction'''

British railway system

2011-01-14T13:16:44Z

Azim:

System of transport taking off in the 1830s that brought Britain to higher levels.

==Development of the railway system in Britain==
In 1804, Richard Trevithick developed a locomotive near the town of Merthyr Tydfil, a coal and iron district in South Wales. There, most of the rails were built between 1830 and 1850. In the beginning, the development was slow, but finally, the railway system became the ‘backbone of transport’ (Niedhart 27).

When in 1825, the first connection between Stockton and Darlington was opened with the ‘Locomation’ (Niedhart 28) engineered by George Stephenson, nobody could believe that a quarter of a century later, the country would be covered by 6.500 miles of tracks. The former miner and amateur engineer then turned to the Liverpool-Manchester-Railway Company, where he developed the ‘Rocket’ (Niedhart 28) in 1829.

In 1830, a railway was built that connected Manchester and Liverpool. This was a competitor for the existing transportation market that previously ran only on streets and channels. During the following decades, transportation in England became consequently cheaper and faster, which made it easier to supply the big cities with goods from afar.

During the next two decades, 5.000 miles of rails were laid. It took approximately three hours to travel from London to Bristol by train. In comparison: if you travelled by coach, it took you twenty hours to reach Bristol.

==Railway Act==
In the beginning, railway journeys took a lot of time, they were expensive and even dangerous. The [[Railway Act]], introduced in 1844 by Sir Robert Peel, turned the railway into a means of mass transport, because this act did not only bring in the first security measures but also fixed the maximum price that had to be paid for a mile travelled. Additionally, it regulated the usage of the tracks and the stops at the stations.

==Iron, coal and bricks==
The building of the railway system caused a great demand for iron, coal and bricks that was unprecedented before. Especially the demand for iron caused the second phase of the industrial revolution, when not cotton, but coal and iron were in the centre of attention.

A further development was made by [[Henry Bessemer]] in 1856. He invented a method to convert iron ore into steal without heating it for a second time. This made the production of steal more budget-priced.

==Expenses==
During the 1830s, the railway construction coasted 4 Million Pounds each year, during the 1840s the numbers increased to 15 Million Pounds. This brought up a new system of financing because mostly, the investors were not present at the construction sides. They were gathered by the banks from all over the country.

1836/1837 and 1847 were booming years. In 1847, 300.000 people were involved in the building and operation of the railway system.

==Effects==
The most noteworthy effect for the working class was that they now could travel to nearby coastal resorts and other recreation areas at the weekend; this lead to a flourishing of towns such as Blackpool. There, workers could afford something that was exclusive to the upper classes before. A service area developed that became an integral part of everyday culture: e.g. William H. Smith opened kiosks at the stations where he sold reading material – also called ‘railway novels (Gelfert 238) – that could be completed during one train journey.

The railway lead also to a mixing of the population, and the acceleration of democracy as on each journey people from various places met.

==Britain as modern example==
Even though there were drawbacks and redundancies, these could not hide the enormous impulses that the construction of the railway system sent out. London turned into the workshop of the world again. A good example for this is the [[Great Exhibition]], with its [[Crystal Palace]] taking place in 1851.

So, the railway allowed Britain to enter modern industry as the main sector of its economy.

== Sources ==
*Gelfert, Hans-Dieter: ''Kleine Kulturgeschichte Großbritannies''. München: C.H. Beck, 1999.
*Niedhart, Gottfried: ''Geschichte Englands im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H. Beck, 1987.

British railway system

2011-01-12T20:39:18Z

Azim: Created page with 'System of transport taking off in the 1830s that brought Britain to higher levels. ==Development of the railway system in Britain== In 1804, Richard Trevithick developed a locom…'

System of transport taking off in the 1830s that brought Britain to higher levels.

==Development of the railway system in Britain==
In 1804, Richard Trevithick developed a locomotive near the town of Merthyr Tydfil, a coal and iron district in South Wales. There, most of the rails were built between 1830 and 1850. In the beginning, the development was slow, but finally, the railway system became the ‘backbone of transport’ (Niedhart 27).

When in 1825, the first connection between Stockton and Darlington was opened with the ‘Locomation’ (Niedhart 28) engineered by George Stephenson, nobody could believe that a quarter of a century later, the country would be covered by 6.500 miles of tracks. The former miner and amateur engineer then turned to the Liverpool-Manchester-Railway Company, where he developed the ‘Rocket’ (Niedhart 28) in 1829.

In 1830, a railway was built that connected Manchester and Liverpool. This was a competitor for the existing transportation market that previously ran only on streets and channels. During the following decades, transportation in England became consequently cheaper and faster. This made it easier to supply the big cities with goods from afar.

During the next two decades, 5.000 miles of rails were laid. It took approximately three hours to travel from London to Bristol by train. In comparison: if you travelled by coach, it took you twenty hours to reach Bristol.

==Railway Act==
In the beginning, railway journeys took a lot of time, they were expensive and even dangerous. The [[Railway Act]], introduced in 1844 by Sir Robert Peel, turned the railway into a means of mass transport, because this act did not only bring in the first security measures but also fixed the maximum price that had to be paid for a mile travelled. Additionally, it regulated the usage of the tracks and the stops at the stations.

==Iron, coal and bricks==
The building of the railway system caused a demand for iron, coal and bricks that was unprecedented before and additionally. Especially the demand for iron caused the second phase of the industrial revolution, where not cotton, but coal and iron were in the centre of attention.

A further development was made by [[Henry Bessemer]] in 1856. He invented a method to convert iron ore into steal without heating it a second time. This made the production of steal more budget-priced.

==Expenses==
During the 1830s, the railway construction coasted 4 Million Pounds each year, during the 1840s the numbers increased to 15 Million Pounds. This brought up a new system of financing because mostly, the investors were not present at the construction sides. They were gathered by the banks from all over the country.

1836/1837 and 1847 were booming years. In 1847, 300.000 people were involved in the building and operation of the railway system.

==Effects==
The most noteworthy effect for the working class was that they now could travel to nearby coastal resorts and other recreation areas at the weekend; this lead to a flourishing of towns such as Blackpool. There, workers could afford something that was exclusive to the upper classes before. A service area developed that became an integral part of everyday culture: e.g. William H. Smith opened kiosks at the stations where he sold reading material – also called ‘railway novels (Gelfert 238) – that could be completed during one train journey.

The railway lead also to a mixing of the population, and the acceleration of democracy as on each journey people from various places met.

==Britain as modern example==
Even though there were drawbacks and redundancies, these could not hide the enormous impulses that the construction of the railway system sent out. London turned into the workshop of the world again. A good example for this is the [[Great Exhibition]], with its [[Crystal Palace]] taking place in 1851.

So, the railway allowed Britain to enter modern industry as the main sector of its economy.

== Sources ==
*Gelfert, Hans-Dieter: ''Kleine Kulturgeschichte Großbritannies''. München: C.H. Beck, 1999.
*Niedhart, Gottfried: ''Geschichte Englands im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H. Beck, 1987.

Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade

2010-12-05T16:43:17Z

Azim:

Act of Parliament, finally passed 25 March 1807.

==Campaign against Slave Trade==

One of the leading figures fighting against slavery was [[William Wilberforce]], a member of the House of Commons since 1780. Together with Thomas Clarkson, a schoolteacher, he lead a group of educated and political influential men. The 'Society for Effecting the Abolition of Slave Trade' (short: 'Abolition Society') understood the fight against slavery as a Christian commandment and with their widespread campaign, they managed to put pressure on Parliament. As a result of their early work, even as early as 1787, a petition in Manchester proved two thirds of the male citizens being against slavery. In 1792, 592 petitions showed approximately 400,000 subscriptions. In 1833, 1,500,000 people supported Wilberforce's ideas.

Wilberforce and his followers did not only give the people the bare facts but they also addressed their emotions. For example, Joshua [[Wedgewood]], a porcelain manufacturer, had a mass-production of a little medal that showed an African man - chained hands pointing towards the sky and praying - and the inscription read: "Am I not a Man and a Brother?" (Wende 2008: 142). Another measure were propaganda writing, some was even written by former slaves, e.g. the autobiography ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself'' published in 1789.

==Act passed in Parliament==

Before the law comes into effect, Prime Minister W.W. Grenville called it „[o]ne of the most glorious acts that [has] ever been done by any assembly of any nation in the world“. [source?]

On 5 February and 24 March 1807, both chambers of the British Parliament agreed on the abolition of slave trade.

Vote figures show a vast majority:
*House of Lords
**100 to 34
*House of Commons
**283 to 16

On 25 March 1807, the law comes into effect by [[Royal Assent]].

==Abstract from the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade==

"Be it therefore enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That from and after the First Day of May One thousand eight hundred and seven, the African Slave Trade, and all manner of dealing and trading in the Purchase, Sale, Barter, or Transfer of Slaves, or of Persons intended to be sold, transferred, used, or dealt with as Slaves, practiced or carried on, in, at, to or from any Part of the Coast or Countries of Africa, shall be, and the same is hereby utterly abolished, prohibited, and declared to be unlawful […]" (Beck 2006: 245)

==But…==

What this act regulated or forbade was only the trade of slaves. The complete abolition of slavery could not yet be accomplished because the indefeasibly protection of personal property fixed by English law was also valid for the British plantation owners and their slaves. So, slavery did still continue until 1833, when the [[Emancipation Act]] released all 800,000 slaves in the British colonies.

==Additional Information==

In 2007, Michael Apted directed a film named ''Amazing Grace'' that tells the story of William Wilberforce and his fight against slavery.

== Sources ==

*Beck, Rudolf / Schröder, Konrad (Eds.): ''Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte''. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.

*Niedhart, Gottfried: ''Geschichte Englands im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H. Beck, 1987.

*Wende, Peter: ''Das Britische Empire''. München: C.H. Beck, 2008.

*Amazon: ''Amazing Grace'' [05.12.2010] http://www.amazon.co.uk/Amazing-Grace-DVD-Ioan-Gruffudd/dp/B000PY50SS/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1291567218&sr=8-1

*Encylopedia Britannica: ''Black History: Slavery.'' [30.11.2010] http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160

Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade

2010-12-05T16:41:57Z

Azim:

Act of Parliament, finally passed 25 March 1807.

==Campaign against Slave Trade==

One of the leading figures fighting against slavery was [[William Wilberforce]], a member of the House of Commons since 1780. Together with Thomas Clarkson, a schoolteacher, he lead a group of educated and political influential men. The 'Society for Effecting the Abolition of Slave Trade' (short: 'Abolition Society') understood the fight against slavery as a Christian commandment and with their widespread campaign, they managed to put pressure on Parliament. As a result of their early work, even as early as 1787, a petition in Manchester proved two thirds of the male citizens being against slavery. In 1792, 592 petitions showed approximately 400,000 subscriptions. In 1833, 1,500,000 people supported Wilberforce's ideas.

Wilberforce and his followers did not only give the people the bare facts but they also addressed their emotions. For example, Joshua [[Wedgewood]], a porcelain manufacturer, had a mass-production of a little medal that showed an African man - chained hands pointing towards the sky and praying - and the inscription read: "Am I not a Man and a Brother?" (Wende 2008: 142). Another measure were propaganda writing, some was even written by former slaves, e.g. the autobiography ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself'' published in 1789.

==Act passed in Parliament==

Before the law comes into effect, Prime Minister W.W. Grenville called it „[o]ne of the most glorious acts that [has] ever been done by any assembly of any nation in the world“. [source?]

On 5 February and 24 March 1807, both chambers of the British Parliament agreed on the abolition of slave trade.

Vote figures show a vast majority:
*House of Lords
**100 to 34
*House of Commons
**283 to 16

On 25 March 1807, the law comes into effect by [[Royal Assent]].

==Abstract from the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade==

"Be it therefore enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That from and after the First Day of May One thousand eight hundred and seven, the African Slave Trade, and all manner of dealing and trading in the Purchase, Sale, Barter, or Transfer of Slaves, or of Persons intended to be sold, transferred, used, or dealt with as Slaves, practiced or carried on, in, at, to or from any Part of the Coast or Countries of Africa, shall be, and the same is hereby utterly abolished, prohibited, and declared to be unlawful […]" (Beck 2006: 245)

==But…==

What this act regulated or forbade was only the trade of slaves. The complete abolition of slavery could not yet be accomplished because the indefeasibly protection of personal property fixed by English law was also valid for the British plantation owners and their slaves. So, slavery did still continue until 1833, when the [[Emancipation Act]] released all 800,000 slaves in the British colonies.

==Additional Information==

There was a film made in 2007 named ''Amazin Grace'' (director: Michael Apted) that tells the story of William Wilberforce and his fight against slavery.

== Sources ==

*Beck, Rudolf / Schröder, Konrad (Eds.): ''Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte''. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.

*Niedhart, Gottfried: ''Geschichte Englands im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H. Beck, 1987.

*Wende, Peter: ''Das Britische Empire''. München: C.H. Beck, 2008.

*Amazon: ''Amazing Grace'' [05.12.2010] http://www.amazon.co.uk/Amazing-Grace-DVD-Ioan-Gruffudd/dp/B000PY50SS/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1291567218&sr=8-1

*Encylopedia Britannica: ''Black History: Slavery.'' [30.11.2010] http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160

Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade

2010-12-01T22:59:36Z

Azim:

Act of Parliament, finally passed 25 March 1807.

==Campaign against Slave Trade==

One of the leading figures fighting against slavery was [[William Wilberforce]], a member of the House of Commons since 1780. Together with Thomas Clarkson, a schoolteacher, he lead a group of educated and political influential men. The 'Society for Effecting the Abolition of Slave Trade' (short: 'Abolition Society') understood the fight against slavery as a Christian commandment and with their wide spread campaign, they managed to put pressure on Parliament. As a result of their early work, even as early as 1787, a petition in Manchester proved two thirds of the male citizens being against slavery. In 1792, 592 petitions showed approximately 400.000 subscriptions. In 1833, 1.500.000 people supported Wilberforce's ideas.

Wilberforce and his followers did not only give the people the bare facts but they also addressed the people's emotion. For example, Joshua Wedgewood, a porcelain manufracturer, had a mass-production of a little medal that showed an African man - chained hands pointing towards the sky and praying - and the insciption read: "Am I not a Man and a Brother?" (Wende 2008: 142). Another measure were propaganda writing, some was even written by former slaves, e.g. the autobiography ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself'' published in 1789.

==Act passed in Parliament==

Before the law comes into effect, Prime Minister W.W. Grenville called it „[o]ne of the most glorious acts that [has] ever been done by any assembly of any nation in the world“.

On 5 February and 24 March 1807, both chambers of the British Parliament agreed on the abolition of slave trade.

Vote figures show a vast majority:
*House of Lords
**100 to 34
*House of Commons
**283 to 16

On 25 March 1807, the law comes into effect by [[Royal Assent]].

==Abstract from the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade==

"Be it therefore enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That from and after the First Day of May One thousand eight hundred and seven, the African Slave Trade, and all manner of dealing and trading in the Purchase, Sale, Barter, or Transfer of Slaves, or of Persons intended to be sold, transferred, used, or dealt with as Slaves, practiced or carried on, in, at, to or from any Part of the Coast or Countries of Africa, shall be, and the same is hereby utterly abolished, prohibited, and declared to be unlawful […]" (Beck 2006: 245)

==But…==

What this act regulated or forbade was only the trade of slaves. The complete abolishion of slavery could not yet be accomplished because the indefeasibly protection of personal property fixed by English law was also valid for the British plantation owners and their slaves. So, slavery did still continue until 1833, when the [[Emancipation Act]] released all 800.000 slaves in the British colonies.

== Sources ==

*Beck, Rudolf / Schröder, Konrad (Ed.): ''Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte''. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.

*Niedhart, Gottfries: ''Geschichte Englands im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H. Beck, 1987.

*Wende, Peter: ''Das Britische Empire''. München: C.H. Beck, 2008.

*Encylopedia Britannica: Black History: Slavery. [30.11.2010] http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160

Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade

2010-12-01T22:57:52Z

Azim:

Act of Parliament, finally passed 25 March 1807.

==Campaign against Slave Trade==

One of the leading figures fighting against slavery was [[William Wilberforce]], a member of the House of Commons since 1780. Together with Thomas Clarkson, a schoolteacher, he lead a group of educated and political influential men. The 'Society for Effecting the Abolition of Slave Trade' (short: 'Abolition Society') understood the fight against slavery as a Christian commandment and with their wide spread campaign, they managed to put pressure on Parliament. As a result of their early work, even as early as 1787, a petition in Manchester proved two thirds of the male citizens being against slavery. In 1792, 592 petitions showed approximately 400.000 subscriptions. In 1833, 1.500.000 people supported Wilberforce's ideas.

Wilberforce and his followers did not only give the people the bare facts but they also addressed the people's emotion. For example, Joshua Wedgewood, a porcelain manufracturer, had a mass-production of a little medal that showed an African man - chained hands pointing towards the sky and praying - and the insciption read: "Am I not a Man and a Brother?" (Wende 2008: 142). Another measure were propaganda writing, some was even written by former slaves, e.g. the autobiography ''The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself'' published in 1789.

==Act passed in Parliament==

On 5 February and 24 March 1807, both chambers of the British Parliament agreed on the abolition of slave trade.

Vote figures show a vast majority:
*House of Lords
**100 to 34
*House of Commons
**283 to 16

On 25 March 1807, the law comes into effect by [[Royal Assent]].

==Abstract from the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade==

"Be it therefore enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That from and after the First Day of May One thousand eight hundred and seven, the African Slave Trade, and all manner of dealing and trading in the Purchase, Sale, Barter, or Transfer of Slaves, or of Persons intended to be sold, transferred, used, or dealt with as Slaves, practiced or carried on, in, at, to or from any Part of the Coast or Countries of Africa, shall be, and the same is hereby utterly abolished, prohibited, and declared to be unlawful […]" (Beck 2006: 245)

==Reactions==

Before the law comes into effect, Prime Minister W.W. Grenville called it „[o]ne of the most glorious acts that [has] ever been done by any assembly of any nation in the world“.

==But…==

What this act regulated or forbade was only the trade of slaves. The complete abolishion of slavery could not yet be accomplished because the indefeasibly protection of personal property fixed by English law was also valid for the British plantation owners and their slaves. So, slavery did still continue until 1833, when the [[Emancipation Act]] released all 800.000 slaves in the British colonies.

== Sources ==

*Beck, Rudolf / Schröder, Konrad (Ed.): ''Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte''. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.

*Niedhart, Gottfries: ''Geschichte Englands im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H. Beck, 1987.

*Wende, Peter: ''Das Britische Empire''. München: C.H. Beck, 2008.

*Encylopedia Britannica: Black History: Slavery. [30.11.2010] http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160

Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade

2010-11-30T22:38:27Z

Azim:

'''!under construction!'''

'''Act for the Abolition of Slave Trade''' passed on 25 March 1807

==Parliament==

On 5 February and 24 March 1807, both chambers of the British Parliament agreed on the abolition of slavery.

Vote figures show a vast majority:
*House of Lords
**100 to 34
*House of Commons
**283 to 16

On 25 March 1807, the law comes into effect by the [[Royal Assent]].

==Abstract from the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade==

"Be it therefore enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That from and after the First Day of May One thousand eight hundred and seven, the African Slave Trade, and all manner of dealing and trading in the Purchase, Sale, Barter, or Transfer of Slaves, or of Persons intended to be sold, transferred, used, or dealt with as Slaves, practiced or carried on, in, at, to or from any Part of the Coast or Countries of Africa, shall be, and the same is hereby utterly abolished, prohibited, and declared to be unlawful […]" (Beck 2006: 245)

==Reactions==

Before the law comes into effect, Prime Minister W.W. Grenville called it „[o]ne of the most glorious acts that [has] ever been done by any assembly of any nation in the world“.

==But…==

Even though this law was passed, slavery did still continue until 1833, when the Emancipation Act released all 800.000 slaves in the British colonies.

== Sources ==

*Beck, Rudolf / Schröder, Konrad (Ed.): ''Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte''. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.

*Encylopedia Britannica: Black History: Slavery. [30.11.2010] http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160

Royal Assent

2010-11-30T22:37:03Z

Azim: Created page with 'means: with the agreement of the monarch'

means: with the agreement of the monarch

Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade

2010-11-30T22:34:07Z

Azim: Created page with ''''!under construction!''' '''Act for the Abolition of Slave Trade''' passed on 25 March 1807 ==Parliament== On 5 February and 24 March 1807, both chambers of the British Pa…'

'''!under construction!'''

'''Act for the Abolition of Slave Trade''' passed on 25 March 1807

==Parliament==

On 5 February and 24 March 1807, both chambers of the British Parliament agreed on the abolition of slavery.

Vote figures show a vast majority:
*House of Lords
**100 to 34
*House of Commons
**283 to 16

On 25 March 1807, the law comes into effect by the [[Royal Assent]].

==Abstract from the Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade==

"Be it therefore enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That from and after the First Day of May One thousand eight hundred and seven, the African Slave Trade, and all manner of dealing and trading in the Purchase, Sale, Barter, or Transfer of Slaves, or of Persons intended to be sold, transferred, used, or dealt with as Slaves, practiced or carried on, in, at, to or from any Part of the Coast or Countries of Africa, shall be, and the same is hereby utterly abolished, prohibited, and declared to be unlawful […]" (Beck 2006: 245)

==Reactions==

Before the law comes into effect, Prime Minister W.W. Grenville calls it „[o]ne of the most glorious acts that [has] ever been done by any assembly of any nation in the world“.

==But…==

Even though this law was passed, slavery did still continue until 1833, when the [Emancipation Act] released all 800.000 slaves in the British colonies.

== Sources ==

*Beck, Rudolf / Schröder, Konrad (Ed.): ''Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte''. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.

*Encylopedia Britannica: Black History: Slavery. [30.11.2010] http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160

Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise

2010-05-21T10:56:05Z

Azim:

'''Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise''' is the daughter of [[Elizabeth II]]. She was born on August 15, 1950.

=Childhood and youth =

Princess Anne was born in Clarence House while her father [[Prince Philip|Philip]] was away in Malta for business. After the birth, Elizabeth left the children to nannies and followed her husband. Anne spent her first Christmas with her brother and their grandparents.

When she returned on January 1, 1951, Elizabeth saw her very ill father and asked Philip to come home, He should never return to his old position. On January 31, they left again for a journey, leaving the children with their grandparents. It was during that time that her grandfather King [[George VI|George]] died on February 5, 1952.

In general, she and her brother saw their mother only on rare occasions. Even when she was at home, she did not allow them to disturb her. Elizabeth's relationship with her children was always one of distance. But because Anne had a good relationship with her father she was better off than the other children.
Their upbringing was regulated: they were e.g. not allowed to eat in public. And in general they were thought they were different than other people. They always had to be perfect in their appearance. In that respect, Philip was even stricter than Elizabeth.

In contrast to Charles, Anne was a wild child. This continued during her teens when she e.g. jumped on stage in the middle of a musical and danced together with the actors. But she always paid much attention to who she was and who her mother was and she insisted that people would encounter her adequately. She shared the passion for horse-riding with her mother and enjoyed living in the countryside. [[Balmoral Castle|Balmoral]] was a paradise to her. At school she did not work more than she had to, although she was not stupid, as her tutor, Cynthia Bee, from Benenden School said. Anne finished her education before the age of 18.

In 1969, she met 22 year old Sandy Harper, the son of a Lieutenant Colonel. He was a polo player and shortly after, they were always seen together. But their relationship did not last long. It might have been her tendency to domineer over other people. Anne continued with what she liked: horse-riding, sailing, skiing, opening a hospital or a school. But it was not much later that she had other men, i.e. Richard Meade and Guy Neville around her.

=The first marriage=

On November 14, 1973, she finally married captain Mark Philips of the Royal Dragoner Guard. Both had met in 1968 and he, too, was a passionate horse-rider, moreover he has succeeded at Olympia. Their wedding was broadcasted all over the world. The Queen and Prince Philip did not like him much, he talked only about the army, horses and had a sense of humour they could not become friendly with.

On March 20, 1974, Anne and Mark were coming home from a film premier when their car was forcefully stopped by Ian Ball, who had planned to kidnap the Princess. He wanted to get a 3,000,000 pound ransom. Several people were injured and only Anne's courage and fierceness could thwart Ball's plan.

=The children=

1976, Anne and Mark settle a Gatcombe Park in Gloucestershire. There, their first son [[Peter Philips]] was born in 1977. A daughter, [[Zara]], followed in 1981. Their parents decided not to give them any title and to keep them from the public eye. But Anne accepted the highest title of the Royal family - 'Princess Royal' - in 1987. Two years after that, Mark and she separated. They were officially divorced in 1989. Both were said to have had an affair. [[Andrew Parker-Bowles]], the later husband of [[Camilla Parker-Bowles|Camilla Shand]] was among Anne's former lovers and Mark had a child with another woman.

=The second marriage=

In December 1992, Anne married Commander Timothy Laurence, equerry of the Queen. Anne's relationship with the press, which had been a frosty one before, got better and her reputation rose.

=Her social engagement=

During the late 80s and early 90s Anne travelled around for a Children's Fund to help hungry, homeless and sick people in Africa, the East, India and Russia. Because of her engagement in the well-being of others and her general awareness of problems, the wish for her becoming the next monarch developed. But this was impossible as Charles was the oldest son and thus the first in line in the succession of the throne.

=Sources=

*Levine, Tom: ''Die Windsors: Glanz und Tragik einer fast normalen Familie''. Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag, 2005.

*Spoto, Donald: ''Die Windsors: Geschichte einer Familie''. München: Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, 1996.

Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

2010-05-21T10:54:49Z

Azim:

'''Albert Francis Charles Augustus Emmanuel of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha''' was born on August 26, 1819 in Schloss Rosenau, Bavaria. He was married to Queen [[Victoria]] and died in 1861.

== Family ==

Albert was the nephew of Victoria's uncle Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (king of Belgium since 1830). Leopold was always interested in linking him with Victoria to enlarge the influence of the Saxe-Coburg dynasty.

== Education ==

At Bonn University where he was educated, he attended i.a. lectures of August Wilhelm Schlegel and Gottlieb Fichte.

Before he got to know Victoria, Albert was trained for the duties and responsibilities of a prince: arts, sciences, politics, history, social behaviour at court and not to forget: the English language.

== Marriage and Children ==

In October 1839, he and his cousin Victoria met for the second time. After a mere five days later, Victoria asked him to marry her, because he was too shy to ask her for her hand.
Their first child, Vicky, was born on November 23, 1840. Eight other children followed during the next seventeen years.

*Vicky (1840-1901)
*Albert Edward 'Bertie' (1841-1910)
*Alice (1843-1878)
*Alfred 'Affie' (1844-1900)
*Helena (1846-1923)
*Louise (1848-1939)
*Arthur (1850-1942)
*Leopold (1853-1884)
*Beatrice (1857-1944)

In 1858, Vicky married the Prussian Crown Prince Frederick William. Their son will be the later Emperor of Germany, Wilhelm II. The others were married into kingdoms all over Europe.

Contrary to the established norms of leaving the children to a nanny or a governess, Albert spent some time with them. Still, they had to undergo the strict education of court. Particularly the heir [[Edward VII|Albert Edward]] was under constant supervision.

After his death in 1861, Victoria did not recover and she wore mourning clothes for the rest of her life. In memory of her husband, she built the Royal Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, which was completed in 1876. Another monument had already been inaugurated in Coburg on August 26, 1865.

== Fear of Influence ==

The British establishment was apprehensive. The reason for that was that he was a man. They were afraid of too much foreign influence, German traditions invading the old English ones. So, even though he was respected as the 'German prince' there was a lot of mistrust. This only changed in 1857 (see Politics and All).

== Politics and All ==

During Victoria's first pregnancy, Albert was named regent by Parliament in case that she died. This was the beginning of his growing influence in politics. He was i.a. responsible for the renovation of [[Buckingham Palace]] and the re-organisation of the Royal finances, which allowed the purchase of two country estates: [[Osborne House]] (Isle of Wight) and [[Balmoral Castle]] (Scotland). In addition, he cared for social matters such as welfare.

From 1843 on, Victoria officially addressed them both as 'we', and in 1857, Albert was announced 'Prince Consort'. Another example of his influence was the [[Great Exhibition]], a World Exhibition at Hyde Park in 1851, which attracted six million visitors.

Even shortly before his death of a typhoid fever on December 14, 1861, Albert was still active. In October 1861, after two diplomats had been kidnapped from the British ship 'Trent', Albert acted as an agent in such a way that he prevented Britain from the risk of being drawn into the US Civil War. On December 1, he signed a paper whose factual formulations the Foreign Office took as a model for the Trent Affair.

== Sources ==

*Duff, David: ''Victoria und Albert: Eine königliche Liebe''. München : Heyne, 1990.

*Lotz, Jürgen: ''Victoria''. Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, 2000.

*BBC: Historic Figures: Prince Albert (1819 - 1861). 04. May 2010.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/albert_prince.shtml]

Osborne House

2010-05-21T10:50:16Z

Azim:

One of the most popular tourist attractions on the Isle of Wight is Osborne House which was owned by [[Victoria|Queen Victoria]]. After her first visit, Victoria wrote “It is impossible to imagine a prettier spot” (cited on: [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server.php?show=nav.14479]). The house was built like an Italian villa and in 1845, Victoria bought the house for herself and her family.

In the following years, the house was renovated and extended according to Victoria’s wishes and even a Wendy house was built in the garden for her grandchildren (the so-called “Swiss Cottage” where the children of the royal family learned to cook). The whole house was renovated in the Italian Renaissance style, which [[Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]] liked very much and which still can be recognised in many rooms of the House. On 22 January 1901, Queen Victoria died in Osborne House in presence of Emperor [[Wilhelm II]], her grandson. In 1903, her son (King [[Edward VII]]) gave the house as a present to the British nation because he had no use for it. Since then, it has been a museum.

Today, Osborne House is still very famous for its Victorian style, the extensive grounds with hundreds of different flowers, the Swiss Cottage and a wonderful view across the Solent.

== Sources ==
* English Heritage. 21 April 2010. http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server.php?show=nav.14479
* Jonas, Linda and Laurie. The Heritage Trail. 21 April 2010. http://www.theheritagetrail.co.uk/royal%20palaces/osborne%20house.htm

Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise

2010-05-17T12:00:15Z

Azim:

'''Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise''' is the daughter of [[Elizabeth II]]. She was born on August 15, 1950.

=Childhood and youth =

Princess Anne was born in Clarence House while her father [[Prince Philip|Philip]] was away in Malta for business. After the birth, Elizabeth left the children to nannies and followed her husband. Anne spent her first Christmas with her brother and their grandparents.

When she returned on January 1, 1951, Elizabeth saw her very ill father and asked Philip to come home, He should never return to his old position. On January 31, they left again for a journey, leaving the children with their grandparents. It was during that time that her grandfather King [[George VI|George]] died on February 5, 1952.

In general, she and her brother saw their mother only on rare occasions. Even when she was at home, she did not allow them to disturb her. Elizabeth's relationship with her children was always one of distance. But because Anne had a good relationship with her father she was better off than the other children.
Their upbringing was regulated: they were e.g. not allowed to eat in public. And in general they were thought they were different than other people. They always had to be perfect in their appearance. In that respect, Philip was even stricter than Elizabeth.

In contrast to Charles, Anne was a wild child. This continued during her teens when she e.g. jumped on stage in the middle of a musical and danced together with the actors. But she always paid much attention to who she was and who her mother was and she insisted that people would encounter her adequately. She shared the passion for horse-riding with her mother and enjoyed living in the countryside. [[Balmoral]] was a paradise to her. At school she did not work more than she had to, although she was not stupid, as her tutor, Cynthia Bee, from Benenden School said. Anne finished her education before the age of 18.

In 1969, she met 22 year old Sandy Harper, the son of a Lieutenant Colonel. He was a polo player and shortly after, they were always seen together. But their relationship did not last long. It might have been her tendency to domineer over other people. Anne continued with what she liked: horse-riding, sailing, skiing, opening a hospital or a school. But it was not much later that she had other men, i.e. Richard Meade and Guy Neville around her.

=The first marriage=

On November 14, 1973, she finally married captain Mark Philips of the Royal Dragoner Guard. Both had met in 1968 and he, too, was a passionate horse-rider, moreover he has succeeded at Olympia. Their wedding was broadcasted all over the world. The Queen and Prince Philip did not like him much, he talked only about the army, horses and had a sense of humour they could not become friendly with.

On March 20, 1974, Anne and Mark were coming home from a film premier when their car was forcefully stopped by Ian Ball, who had planned to kidnap the Princess. He wanted to get a 3,000,000 pound ransom. Several people were injured and only Anne's courage and fierceness could thwart Ball's plan.

=The children=

1976, Anne and Mark settle a Gatcombe Park in Gloucestershire. There, their first son [[Peter Philips]] was born in 1977. A daughter, [[Zara]], followed in 1981. Their parents decided not to give them any title and to keep them from the public eye. But Anne accepted the highest title of the Royal family - 'Princess Royal' - in 1987. Two years after that, Mark and she separated. They were officially divorced in 1989. Both were said to have had an affair. [[Andrew Parker-Bowles]], the later husband of [[Camilla Parker-Bowles|Camilla Shand]] was among Anne's former lovers and Mark had a child with another woman.

=The second marriage=

In December 1992, Anne married Commander Timothy Laurence, equerry of the Queen. Anne's relationship with the press, which had been a frosty one before, got better and her reputation rose.

=Her social engagement=

During the late 80s and early 90s Anne travelled around for a Children's Fund to help hungry, homeless and sick people in Africa, the East, India and Russia. Because of her engagement in the well-being of others and her general awareness of problems, the wish for her becoming the next monarch developed. But this was impossible as Charles was the oldest son and thus the first in line in the succession of the throne.

=Sources=

*Levine, Tom: ''Die Windsors: Glanz und Tragik einer fast normalen Familie''. Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag, 2005.

*Spoto, Donald: ''Die Windsors: Geschichte einer Familie''. München: Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, 1996.

Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise

2010-05-12T18:25:20Z

Azim:

WORK IN PROGRESS

'''Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise''' is the daughter of [[Elizabeth II]]. She was born on August 15, 1950.

=Childhood and youth =

Princess Anne was born in Clarence House while her father [[Prince Philip|Philip]] was away in Malta for business. After the birth, Elizabeth left the children to nannies and followed her husband. Anne spent her first Christmas with her brother and their grandparents.

When she returned on January 1, 1951, Elizabeth saw her very ill father and asked Philip to come home, He should never return to his old position. On January 31, they left again for a journey, leaving the children with their grandparents. It was during that time that her grandfather King [[George VI|George]] died on February 5, 1952.

In genreral, they saw their mother only on rare occasions. Even when she was at home, she did not allow them disturb her. Elizabeth's relationship to her children was always one of distance. But because Anne had a good relationship with her father was better off than the the other children.
Their upbringing was regulated: they were e.g. not allowed to eat in public. And in general they were thought they were different than other people. They always had to be perfect in their appearance. In In that respect, Philip was even stricter than Elizabeth.

In contrast to Charles, Anne was a wild child. This continued during her teens when she e.g. jumped on stage in the middle of a musical and danced together with the actors. But she always paid much attention to who she was and who her mother was and she insisted on that people would encounter her adequately. She shared the passion for horse-riding with her mother and enjoyed living in the countryside. Balmoral was a paradise to her. At school she did not work more than she had to, although she was not stupid, as her Cynthia Bee from Benenden School said. Anne finished her education before the age of 18.

In 1969, she met 22 year old Sandy Harper, the son of a Lieutenant Colonel. He was a polo player and shortly after, they were always seen together. But their relationship did not last long. It might have been her tendency to spoon-feed people. Anne continued with what she liked: horse-riding, sailing, skiing, opening a hospital or a school. But was not much later that she had a.o. Richard Meade and Guy Neville around her.

=The first marriage=

On November 14, 1973, she finally married captain Mark Philips of the Royal Dragoner Guard. Both had met in 1968 and he, too, was a passionate horse-rider, moreover he has succeeded at Olympia. Their wedding was broadcasted all over the world. The Queen and Philip did not like him much, he talked only about the army, horses and had a strange sense of humour.

On March 20, 1974, Anne and Mark were coming home from a film premier when their car was forcefully stopped by Ian Ball, who had planned to kidnap the Princess. He wanted to get a 3.000.000 pound ransom. Several people were injured and only her courage and fierceness could thwart Ball's plan.

=The children=

1976, Anne and Mark settle a Gatcombe Park in Gloucestershire. There, her first son [[Peter Philips]] was born in 1977. A daughter, [[Zara]], followed in 1981. Their parents decided not to give them any title and to keep them from the public eye. But Anne accepted the highest title of the Royal family - 'Princess Royal' - in 1987. Two years after that, Mark and she separated. They were officially divorced in 1989. Both were said have had an affair. [[Andrew Parker Bowles]], the later husband of [[Camilla Parker-Bowles|Camilla Shand]] was among Anne's former lovers and Mark had a child with another woman.

=The second marriage=

In December 1992, Anne married Commander Timothy Laurence, equerry of the Queen. Anne's relationship with the press, which had been a frosty one before, got better and her reputation rose.

=Her social engagement=

During the late 80's and early 90's Anne travelled around for a Children's Fund to help hungry, homeless and sick people in Africa, the East, India and Russia. Because of her engagement in the well-being of others and her general awareness of problems, the wish for her becoming the next monarch developed. But this was impossible as Charles was the oldest son in the succession of the throne.

=Sources=

*Levine, Tom: 'Die Windsors: Glanz und Tragik einer fast normalen Familie'. Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag, 2005.

*Spoto, Donald: 'Die Windsors: Geschichte einer Familie'. München: Wilhelm Heye Verlag, 1996.

Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise

2010-05-12T18:20:23Z

Azim: /* Her engagement */

WORK IN PROGRESS

'''Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise''' is the daughter of [[Elizabeth II]]. She was born on August 15, 1950.

=Childhood and youth =

Princess Anne was born in Clarence House while her father [[Prince Philip|Philip]] was away in Malta for business. After the birth, Elizabeth left the children to nannies and followed her husband. Anne spent her first Christmas with her brother and their grandparents.

When she returned on January 1, 1951, Elizabeth saw her very ill father and asked Philip to come home, He should never return to his old position. On January 31, they left again for a journey, leaving the children with their grandparents. It was during that time that her grandfather King [[George VI|George]] died on February 5, 1952.

In genreral, they saw their mother only on rare occasions. Even when she was at home, she did not allow them disturb her. Elizabeth's relationship to her children was always one of distance. But because Anne had a good relationship with her father was better off than the the other children.
Their upbringing was regulated: they were e.g. not allowed to eat in public. And in general they were thought they were different than other people. They always had to be perfect in their appearance. In In that respect, Philip was even stricter than Elizabeth.

In contrast to Charles, Anne was a wild child. This continued during her teens when she e.g. jumped on stage in the middle of a musical and danced together with the actors. But she always paid much attention to who she was and who her mother was and she insisted on that people would encounter her adequately. She shared the passion for horse-riding with her mother and enjoyed living in the countryside. Balmoral was a paradise to her. At school she did not work more than she had to, although she was not stupid, as her Cynthia Bee from Benenden School said. Anne finished her education before the age of 18.

In 1969, she met 22 year old Sandy Harper, the son of a Lieutenant Colonel. He was a polo player and shortly after, they were always seen together. But their relationship did not last long. It might have been her tendency to spoon-feed people. Anne continued with what she liked: horse-riding, sailing, skiing, opening a hospital or a school. But was not much later that she had a.o. Richard Meade and Guy Neville around her.

=The first marriage=

On November 14, 1973, she finally married captain Mark Philips of the Royal Dragoner Guard. Both had met in 1968 and he, too, was a passionate horse-rider, moreover he has succeeded at Olympia. Their wedding was broadcasted all over the world. The Queen and Philip did not like him much, he talked only about the army, horses and had a strange sense of humour.

On March 20, 1974, Anne and Mark were coming home from a film premier when their car was forcefully stopped by Ian Ball, who had planned to kidnap the Princess. He wanted to get a 3.000.000 pound ransom. Several people were injured and only her courage and fierceness could thwart Ball's plan.

=The children=

1976, Anne and Mark settle a Gatcombe Park in Gloucestershire. There, her first son [[Peter Philips]] was born in 1977. A daughter, [[Zara]], followed in 1981. Their parents decided not to give them any title and to keep them from the public eye. But Anne accepted the highest title of the Royal family - 'Princess Royal' - in 1987. Two years after that, Mark and she separated. They were officially divorced in 1989. Both were said have had an affair. [[Andrew Parker Bowles]], the later husband of [[Camilla Parker-Bowles|Camilla Shand]] was among Anne's former lovers and Mark had a child with another woman.

=The second marriage=

In December 1992, Anne married Commander Timothy Laurence, equerry of the Queen. Anne's relationship with the press, which had been a frosty one before, got better and her reputation rose.

=Her social engagement=

During the late 80's and early 90's Anne travelled around for a Children's Fund to help hungry, homeless and sick people in Africa, the East, India and Russia.

=Succession=

Because of her engagement in the well-being of others and her general awareness of problems, the wish for her becoming the next monarch developed. But this was impossible as Charles is the oldest son in the succession of the throne.

=Sources=

*Levine, Tom: 'Die Windsors: Glanz und Tragik einer fast normalen Familie'. Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag, 2005.

*Spoto, Donald: 'Die Windsors: Geschichte einer Familie'. München: Wilhelm Heye Verlag, 1996.

Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise

2010-05-12T18:18:26Z

Azim: Created page with 'WORK IN PROGRESS '''Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise''' is the daughter of Elizabeth II. She was born on August 15, 1950. =Childhood and youth = Princess Anne was bo…'

WORK IN PROGRESS

'''Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise''' is the daughter of [[Elizabeth II]]. She was born on August 15, 1950.

=Childhood and youth =

Princess Anne was born in Clarence House while her father [[Prince Philip|Philip]] was away in Malta for business. After the birth, Elizabeth left the children to nannies and followed her husband. Anne spent her first Christmas with her brother and their grandparents.

When she returned on January 1, 1951, Elizabeth saw her very ill father and asked Philip to come home, He should never return to his old position. On January 31, they left again for a journey, leaving the children with their grandparents. It was during that time that her grandfather King [[George VI|George]] died on February 5, 1952.

In genreral, they saw their mother only on rare occasions. Even when she was at home, she did not allow them disturb her. Elizabeth's relationship to her children was always one of distance. But because Anne had a good relationship with her father was better off than the the other children.
Their upbringing was regulated: they were e.g. not allowed to eat in public. And in general they were thought they were different than other people. They always had to be perfect in their appearance. In In that respect, Philip was even stricter than Elizabeth.

In contrast to Charles, Anne was a wild child. This continued during her teens when she e.g. jumped on stage in the middle of a musical and danced together with the actors. But she always paid much attention to who she was and who her mother was and she insisted on that people would encounter her adequately. She shared the passion for horse-riding with her mother and enjoyed living in the countryside. Balmoral was a paradise to her. At school she did not work more than she had to, although she was not stupid, as her Cynthia Bee from Benenden School said. Anne finished her education before the age of 18.

In 1969, she met 22 year old Sandy Harper, the son of a Lieutenant Colonel. He was a polo player and shortly after, they were always seen together. But their relationship did not last long. It might have been her tendency to spoon-feed people. Anne continued with what she liked: horse-riding, sailing, skiing, opening a hospital or a school. But was not much later that she had a.o. Richard Meade and Guy Neville around her.

=The first marriage=

On November 14, 1973, she finally married captain Mark Philips of the Royal Dragoner Guard. Both had met in 1968 and he, too, was a passionate horse-rider, moreover he has succeeded at Olympia. Their wedding was broadcasted all over the world. The Queen and Philip did not like him much, he talked only about the army, horses and had a strange sense of humour.

On March 20, 1974, Anne and Mark were coming home from a film premier when their car was forcefully stopped by Ian Ball, who had planned to kidnap the Princess. He wanted to get a 3.000.000 pound ransom. Several people were injured and only her courage and fierceness could thwart Ball's plan.

=The children=

1976, Anne and Mark settle a Gatcombe Park in Gloucestershire. There, her first son [[Peter Philips]] was born in 1977. A daughter, [[Zara]], followed in 1981. Their parents decided not to give them any title and to keep them from the public eye. But Anne accepted the highest title of the Royal family - 'Princess Royal' - in 1987. Two years after that, Mark and she separated. They were officially divorced in 1989. Both were said have had an affair. [[Andrew Parker Bowles]], the later husband of [[Camilla Parker-Bowles|Camilla Shand]] was among Anne's former lovers and Mark had a child with another woman.

=The second marriage=

In December 1992, Anne married Commander Timothy Laurence, equerry of the Queen. Anne's relationship with the press, which had been a frosty one before, got better and her reputation rose.

=Her engagement=

During the late 80's and early 90's Anne travelled around for a Children's Fund to help hungry, homeless and sick people in Africa, the East, India and Russia.

=Succession=

Because of her engagement in the well-being of others and her general awareness of problems, the wish for her becoming the next monarch developed. But this was impossible as Charles is the oldest son in the succession of the throne.

=Sources=

*Levine, Tom: 'Die Windsors: Glanz und Tragik einer fast normalen Familie'. Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag, 2005.

*Spoto, Donald: 'Die Windsors: Geschichte einer Familie'. München: Wilhelm Heye Verlag, 1996.

Great Exhibition

2010-05-10T14:02:40Z

Azim:

The first world-exhibition. It took place in London in 1851 and its focus was on the international developments in engineering, science, economy and arts.

= The idea =

Inspired by the Parisian Exposition of 1849, the idea to bring such an event to England arose. But as the President, [[Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]], was not interested in an exhibition of national goods, it was to be a Great Exhibition - international and presenting the visitors the developments in engineering, science, economy and arts.

= Opponents and fears =

The business and the industry were delighted. But still, there were opponents. And even though the exhibition hall was finished within six month after a blueprint by Sir Joseph Paxton, who was known for his constructions of gigantic conservatories made of glass and iron, there were still critical voices:

*Mathematicians calculated that the 'Crystal Palace' would fall apart in the first strong breeze.
*Engineers foresaw that the galleries would break, striking the visitors to death.
*Economists claimed that the huge masses would create inflation in London.
*Physicians had visions of the Black Death of the Middle Ages coming back through the contact of so many different races.
*Moralists believed that Britain would be inculcated with all vices of the civilised and uncivilised world.
*Theologians saw a second tower of Babel that would attract God's anger.

Prince Albert's health was affected by all the energy he put into this project, he was over-worked.

= The building =

The building, 563 by 139 metres and 24 metres high, was situated in Hyde Park. It consisted of 3.300 hollow cast-iron columns, 2.300 wrought-iron arches and 300.000 windows. This made it look delicate, light and airy. Its visual appearance gave it the name: 'Crystal Palace'.

= The opening =

On May 1, 1851, the [[Victoria|Queen]] was followed by 700,000 people to celebrate the opening of the first world-exhibition. Finally, the concerns vanished. The ''Times'' that had fought against this project to the finish, could not find the right words to describe these overwhelming impressions. It was some kind of an eighth wonder of the world: 90,000m2 with 14,000 exhibitors and more than 100,000 exhibits. You were presented everything form engineering, arts to craftworks and kitsch.

Additionally, Albert had planned model homes for the working class to be shown close by the barracks in Hyde Park. These houses had a living-room, three bedrooms, a scullery and were designed to accommodate four working-class families. New to the construction of these houses was the use of hollow-bricks that should keep them dry, save them from fire and reduce noise.

= Complete Success =

All in all, the Queen visited the Great Exhibition 34 times until it closed on October 15. More than 6,000,000 people came to the 'Crystal Palace' during this time. But this was not only coping with the masses but it also asked for masterly achievements in logistics and concerning the railway.

Finally, the financial success of the exhibition was remarkable: 186,000 pounds profit. This money was used for a new educational centre placed in South Kensington, which would be later known as 'Albertropolis'. The [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] is part of this complex.

= What happened to the 'Crystal Palace'? =

After the exhibition closed its gates, the exhibition hall was pulled down and rebuilt again in Sydenham and used for various purposes. But in November 30, 1936, a damaged gas supply line set the building on fire and even the fire brigades could not save it.

= Sources =

*Duff, David: ''Victoria and Albert: Eine königliche Liebe''. München: Wilhem Heye Verlag, 1990.

*Lotz, Jürgen: ''Victoria''. Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, 2000.

*Victorian Station: The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace. 06. May 2010. [http://www.victorianstation.com/palace.html]

*Victorian Web: The Crystal Palace, or The Great Exhibition of 1851: An Overview. 06. May 2010. [http://www.victorianweb.org/history/1851/index.html]

Great Exhibition

2010-05-06T21:06:36Z

Azim: Created page with 'The '''Great Exhibition''' was the first world-exhibition. It took place in London in 1851 and its focus was on the international developments in engineering, science, economy an…'

The '''Great Exhibition''' was the first world-exhibition. It took place in London in 1851 and its focus was on the international developments in engineering, science, economy and arts.

= The idea =

Inspired by the Parisian Exposition of 1849, the idea to bring such an event to England arose. But as the President, Prince Albert was not interested in an exhibition of national goods, it was to be a Great Exhibition - international and presenting the visitors the developments in engineering, science, economy and arts.

= Opposers and fears =

The business and the industry were delighted. But still, there were opposers. And even though the exhibition hall was finished within six month after a blueprint by Sir Joseph Paxton, who was known for his constructions of gigantic conservatories made of glass and iron, there were still concerns around.

*Mathematicians calculated that the 'Crystal Palace' would fall apart in the first strong breeze.
*Engineers foresaw that the galleries would break, striking the visitors to death.
*Economists claimed that the huge masses would create inflation in London.
*Physicians had visions of the Black Death of the Middle Ages coming back through the contact of so many different races.
*Moralists believed that Britain would be inculcated with all vices of the civilised and uncivilised world.
*Theologians saw a second tower of Babel that would attract God's anger.

Prince Albert's health was affected by all the energy he put into this project, he was over-worked.

= The building =

The building, 563 by 139 metres and 24 metres high, was situated in Hyde Park. It consisted of 3.300 hollow cast-iron columns, 2.300 wrought-iron arches and 300.000 windows. This made it look delicate, light and airy. Its visual appearance gave it the name: 'Cristal Palace'.

= The opening =

On May 1, 1851, the Queen was followed by 700.000 people to celebrate the opening of the first world-exhibition. Finally, the concerns vanished. The ''Times'' that had fought against this project to the finish, could not find the right words to describe these overwhelming impressions. It was some kind of an eighth wonder of the world: 90.000m2 with 14.000 exhibitors and more than 100.000 exhibits. You were presented everything form engineering, arts to craftworks and kitsch.

Additionally, Albert had planned model homes for the working-class to be shown close by the barracks in Hyde Park. These houses had a living-room, three bedrooms, a scullery and were designed to accommodate four worker-families. New to the construction of these houses was the use of hollow-bricks that should keep them dry, save them from fire and reduce noise.

= Complete Success =

All in all, the Queen visited the Great Exhibition 34 times until it closed on October 15. More than 6.000.000 people came to the 'Cristal Palace' during this time. But this was not only coping with the masses but it also asked for masterly achievements in logistics and concerning the railway.

Finally, the financial success of the exhibition was remarkable: 186.000 pounds. This money was used for a new educational centre placed in South Kensington, which would be later known as 'Albertropolis'. The [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] is part of this complex.

= What happened to the 'Cristal Palace'? =

After the exhibition closed its gates, the exhibition hall was pulled down and rebuilt again in Sydenham and used for varous purposes. But in November 30, 1936, a damaged gas supply line set the building on fire and even the fire brigades could not save it.

= Sources =

*Duff, David: ''Victoria and Albert: Eine königliche Liebe''. München: Wilhem Heye Verlag, 1990.

*Lotz, Jürgen: ''Victoria''. Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, 2000.

*Victorian Station: The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace. 06. May 2010. [http://www.victorianstation.com/palace.html]

*Victorian Web: The Crystal Palace, or The Great Exhibition of 1851: An Overview. 06. May 2010. [http://www.victorianweb.org/history/1851/index.html]

Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

2010-05-04T10:11:38Z

Azim:

'''Albert Francis Charles Augustus Emmanuel of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha''' was born on August 26, 1819 in Schloss Rosenau, Bavaria. He was married to Queen [[Victoria]] and died in 1861.

== Family ==

Albert was the nephew of Victoria's uncle Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (king of Belgium since 1830). Leopold was always interested in linking him with Victoria to enlarge the influence of the Saxe-Coburg dynasty.

== Education ==

At Bonn University where he was educated, he attended i.a. lectures of August Wilhelm Schlegel and Gottlieb Fichte.

Before he got to know Victoria, Albert was trained for the duties and responsibilities of a prince: arts, sciences, politics, history, social behaviour at court and not to forget: the English language.

== Marriage and Children ==

In October 1839, he and his cousin Victoria met for the second time. After a mere five days later, Victoria asked him to marry her, because he was too shy to ask her for her hand.
Their first child, Vicky, was born on November 23, 1840. Eight other children followed during the next seventeen years.

*Vicky (1840-1901)
*Albert Edward 'Bertie' (1841-1910)
*Alice (1843-1878)
*Alfred 'Affie' (1844-1900)
*Helena (1846-1923)
*Louise (1848-1939)
*Arthur (1850-1942)
*Leopold (1853-1884)
*Beatrice (1857-1944)

In 1858, Vicky married the Prussian Crown Prince Frederick William. Their son will be the later Emperor of Germany, Wilhelm II. The others were married into kingdoms all over Europe.

Contrary to the established norms of leaving the children to a nanny or a governess, Albert spent some time with them. Still, they had to undergo the strict education of court. Particularly the heir [[Edward VII|Albert Edward]] was under constant supervision.

After his death in 1861, Victoria did not recover and she wore mourning clothes for the rest of her life. In memory of her husband, she built the Royal Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, which was completed in 1876. Another monument had already been inaugurated in Coburg on August 26, 1865.

== Fear of Influence ==

The British establishment was apprehensive. The reason for that was that he was a man. They were afraid of too much foreign influence, German traditions invading the old English ones. So, even though he was respected as the 'German prince' there was a lot of mistrust. This only changed in 1857 (see Politics and All).

== Politics and All ==

During Victoria's first pregnancy, Albert was named regent by Parliament in case that she died. This was the beginning of his growing influence in politics. He was i.a. responsible for the renovation of [[Buckingham Palace]] and the re-organisation of the Royal finances, which allowed the purchase of two country estates: [[Osborne House]] (Isle of Wight) and [[Balmoral Castle]] (Scotland). In addition, he cared for social matters such as welfare.

From 1843 on, Victoria officially addressed them both as 'we', and in 1857, Albert was announced 'Prince Consort'. Another example of his influence was the [[Great Exhibition]], a World Exhibition at Hyde Park in 1851, which attracted six million visitors.

Even shortly before his death of a typhoid fever on December 14, 1861, Albert was still active. In October 1861, after two diplomats had been kidnapped from the British ship 'Trent', Albert acted as an agent in such a way that he prevented Britain from the risk of being drawn into the US Civil War. On December 1, he signed a paper whose factual formulations the Foreign Office took as a model for the Trent Affair.

== Sources ==

*Levine, Tom: ''Die Windsors: Glanz und Tragik einer fast normalen Familie''. Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag, 2005.

*Lotz, Jürgen: ''Victoria''. Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, 2000.

*BBC: Historic Figures: Prince Albert (1819 - 1861). 04. May 2010.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/albert_prince.shtml]

Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

2010-05-03T22:47:17Z

Azim: Created page with 'Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha '''Albert Francis Charles Augustus Emmanuel of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha''' was born on August 26, 1819 in Schloss Rosenau, Bavaria. He was married to Queen …'

Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

'''Albert Francis Charles Augustus Emmanuel of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha''' was born on August 26, 1819 in Schloss Rosenau, Bavaria. He was married to Queen [[Victoria]] and died in 1861.

== Family ==

Albert was the nephew of Victoria's uncle Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (king of Belgium since 1830). Leopold was always interested in linking him with Victoria to enlarge the influence of the Saxe-Coburg dynasty.

== Education ==

At Bonn University where he was educated, he attended i.a. lectures of August Wilhelm Schlegel and Gottlieb Fichte.

Before he got to know Victoria, Albert was trained for the duties and responsibilities of a prince: arts, sciences, politics, history, social behaviour at court and not to forget: the English language.

== Marriage and Children ==

In October 1839, he and his cousin Victoria met for the second time. After a mere five days later, Victoria asked him to marry her, because he was too shy to ask her for her hand.
Their first child, Vicky, was born on November 23, 1840. Eight other children followed during the next seventeen years.

*Vicky (1840-1901)
*Albert Edward 'Bertie' (1841-1910)
*Alice (1843-1878)
*Alfred 'Affie' (1844-1900)
*Helena (1846-1923)
*Louise (1848-1939)
*Arthur (1850-1942)
*Leopold (1853-1884)
*Beatrice (1857-1944)

In 1858, Vicky married the Prussian Crown Prince Frederick William. Their son will be the later Emperor of Germany, Wilhelm II. The others were married into kingdoms all over Europe.

Contrary to the established norms of leaving the children to a nanny or a governess, Albert spent some time with them. Still, they had to undergo the strict education of court. Particularly the heir Albert Edward was under constant supervision.

After his death in 1861, Victoria did not recover. In memory of her husband, she built the Royal Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, which was completed in 1876.

== Fear of Influence ==

Before Albert married into the Royal Family, other princesses of dutchessess from Germany have done the same. Yet, the British establishment was apprehensive. The reason for that was that he was a man. They were afraid of too much foreign influence, German traditions invading the old English ones. So, even though he was respected as the 'German prince' there was a lot of mistrust. This only changed in 1857 (see Politics and All).

== Politics and All ==

During Victoria's first pregnancy, Albert was named regent by Parliament in case that she died. This was the beginning of his growning influences in politics. He was i.a. responsible for the renovation of [[Buckingham Palace]] and the re-organisation of the Royal finances, which allowed the purchase of two country estates: [[Osborne House]] (Isle of Wight) and Castle Balmoral (Scotland). In addition, he cared for social matters such as welfare.

From 1843 on, Victoria officially adressed them both as a team, and in 1857, Albert was announced 'Prince Consort'.Another example of his influence was the [[Great Exhibition]], a World Exhibition at Hyde Park in 1851, which attracted six million visitors.

Even short before his death of a typhoid on December 14, 1861, Albert was still active. In October 1861, after two diplomats had been kidnapped from the British merchant-ship 'Trent', Albert acted as an agent in such a way that, perhaps, he prevented a war between the USA and Britain.

== Sources ==

*Levine, Tom: ''Die Windsors: Glanz und Tragik einer fast normalen Familie''. Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag, 2005.

*BBC: Historic Figures: Prince Albert (1819 - 1861). 04. May 2010.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/albert_prince.shtml]

Gunpowder Plot

2009-07-22T11:26:28Z

Azim: Undo revision 2734 by Pankratz (Talk)

English Catholicism already began to fade within the first years of the Stuart era. This is partly due to the plot of Catholics who tried to blow up the English Parliament on the day of its opening on 5 November 1605.

----

===What Happened===
An oppositional group of Catholics planned to blow up the Parliament and with it the whole political elite of England (the Commons, the Lords, King [[James I]] and his court). The plot had to be delayed because Parliament was prorogued several times, e.g. due to plague outbreaks at the end of 1604. The group hid the gunpowder in the cellars under the Parliament, it was directly stored under the House of Lords.
The plot was discovered before something could happen. Lord Chamberlain Suffolk, accompanied by Lord Monteagle and others, made his rounds of the palace and encountered Guy Fawkes. Fawkes was mistaken for a servant and the Lord Chamberlain noticed brushwood and faggots, which conceiled the gunpowder. But nothing else was discovered as the goods were declared as belonging to a Mr. Thomas Percy, the tenant of the house. But then the king ordered a further inspection of the cellar and in the night of 4 November Fawkes was found and arrested. He was instructed to light the gunpowder on the 5 November at the very moment the king entered into the Lords. But the leaders of the plot did not give in, they fled and hid in Catholic 'safe houses'. In several incidents, some of the plotters were killed or wounded others were caught and put into the Tower and tried on 27 January 1606.

----

===Who was involved===
One of the main plotters was Guy (Guido) Fawkes (1570-1606), a professional blaster. He was the son of a Protestant solicitor, who converted to Catholicism and who was finally executed in 1606, after he had served under the Spanish troops in the Netherlands.

"Last of all came the great devil of all, Guy Fawkes, alias Johnson, who should have put fire to the powder. His body being weak with the torture and sickness he was scarce able to go up the ladder, yet with much ado, by the help of the hangman, went high enough to break his neck by the fall. He made no speech, but with his crosses and idle ceremonies made his end upon the gallows and the block, to the great joy of all the beholders that the land was ended of so wicked a villainy." (Gunpowder Plot Society 2008: Guy Fawkes)

====The Thirteen Main Plotters====

* Thomas Bates
* Robert Catesby
* Sir Everad Digby
* Guy (Guido) Fawkes
* John Grant
* Robert Keyes
* Thomas Percy
* Ambrose Rookwood
* Francis Tresham
* Robert Wintour
* Thomas Wintour
* Christopher Wright
* John Wright

----

===Effects===
Just after the plot had been detected, the inhabitants of London were called to light bonfires as celebrate to both the king and the nobility which had survived.
Although this was just an individual action of some fanatics, it had a remarkable effect on England’s public opinion. Catholicism became something dubious and evoked thoughts of murder and assassination. English Catholics, who were involved in numerous political intrigues and conspiracies under the reign of [[Elizabeth I]], withdrew from politics after the Gunpowder Plot had failed. Despite this plot King James I did not introduce stricter rules against Catholics. 
Until this day, the uncovering of the plot is celebrated as [[Guy Fawkes Day]] on 5 November, when after a procession effigies are burnt. Thus, nobody should forget what a danger Catholics can be for a state.

----

===Sources===
* Buchanan, Brenda; et al. ''Gunpowder Plots: A Celebration of 400 Years of British Carelessness with Explosives''. London: Allen Lane, 2005.
* Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts: 1485-1714''. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2004.
* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

''Plotters''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/plotters.asp
21.07.2009

''Guy Fawkes''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008.
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/fawkes.asp
21.07.2009

Interregnum

2009-07-22T11:23:15Z

Azim: Undo revision 2739 by Pankratz (Talk)

Time between 1649 and 1660 when England was a republic.

----

===What happened===

On 30 January 1649, [[Charles I]] was executed and on 6 and 7 February the House of Lords and the monarchy were abolished. On 19 Mai 1649, England became a Commonwealth or Free State. Now, the administration lay in the hands of the Privy Council. The executive power was lead by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. Whereas before lawtexts mentioned the king, they now spoke of the "Keepers of the Liberties of England" (Haan 1993: 182). But the republic remained a republic without republicans. 
On 20 April 1653, the core of Parliament was dissolved, in December the Puritans were included as the Parliament of Saints where they tried to influence politics according to their religion. A few days later, Cromwell was declared "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland" (Maurer 1997: 205). He tried to stabilise England through a written constitution. Cromwell was responsible for administration, foreign policy; he had a fixed budget and an army, but he was nevertheless dependent on the Parliament, which had to come together at least every three years. The following year, England, Ireland, and Scotland were united. The Parliament was dissolved but had to be recalled for the war against Spain. In that way, Oliver Cromwell tried to continue the naval power that England had under [[Elizabeth I]]. 
On 3 September 1658 Oliver Cromwell died and his son Richard Cromwell could not keep his function up as he lacked the support of the army. The generals Fleetwood and Lambert forced him to abdicate and summoned the core Parliament again. As it tried to cut down the army, it was dissolved. Finally, as everything else failed the monarchy was restored in 1660 and Charles II became king, the House of Commons and the House of Lords as well as the State church were reestablished.

----

===Aims===
The first aim was to secure the power and the second to expand it. This lead to a more active foreign policy. [[Levellers|Leveller]] groups were dissolved and rebellions in Ireland and Scotland were defeated. 

----

===Ireland and Scotland===

The republic had a standing army of 44.000 men and thus possessed the greatest military power at that time, which it directed towards Ireland. Ireland's position was the total opposition towards England. Several incidents in Ireland (e.g. in Drogheda and Wexford) where many civilians were killed stirred up the hatred against England even more.
Then, Cromwell directed his power towards Scotland. He triumphed in Dunbar and Edinburgh. After Charles II and his troops were defeated in England, he fled to France and Scotland lost its independence for nine years.

----

===Religion===
In religious matters, a relative pluralism occurred: the parishes were left to decide how mass should be held. Thus, the [[Act of Uniformity|Uniformity]] of the 16th century lapsed. For the first time since the middle ages, Jews were allowed to come to England from 1656 on. There was not obligatory mass on Sunday, but on the other hand the decision of what to do on Sundays was limited by strict rules that forbid every kind of amusement (including dance, sports, game and visiting inns).

----

===Trade===
In 1651, the Navigation Act was introduced, which lead to the war against the Netherlands. From 1652 to 1654, England was successful in several naval battles.

----

===Why did it fail===
The military power did not help to consolidate the new system as the public did not stand behind it. And furthermore, the core of the Parliament was represented by a minority. Some parts of the country were not represented at all. But it did not really matter who was on top as long as the result was still a financial burden. The republic did not fail because of powerful opposition but mainly because it lacked the acceptance of the political nation.

----

===Sources===

* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

Interregnum

2009-07-21T21:18:43Z

Azim:

Time between 1649 and 1660 when England was a republic.

----

===What happened===

On 30 January 1649, [[Charles I]] was executed and on 6 and 7 February the House of Lords and the monarchy were abolished. On 19 Mai 1649, England became a Commonwealth or Free State. Now, the administration lay in the hands of the Privy Council. The executive power was lead by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. Whereas before lawtexts mentioned the king, they now spoke of the "Keepers of the Liberties of England" (Heiner 1993: 182). But the republic remained a republic without republicans. 
On 20 April 1653, the core of the coreparliament was dissolved, in December the Puritans were included as the Parliament of Saints where they tried to influence politics according to their religion. A few days later, Cromwell was declared "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland" (Maurer 1997: 205). He tried to stabilised England through a written constitution. Cromwell was responsible for administration, foreign policy; he had a fixed budget and an army, but he was nevertheless dependant on the Parliament, which had to come together at least every three years. The following year, England, Ireland, and Scotland were united. The Parliament was dissolved but had to be recalled for the war against Spain. In that way, Oliver Cromwell tried to continue the naval power that England had under Elizabth I. 
On 3 September 1658 Oliver Cromwell died and his son Richard Cromwell could not keep his function up as he lacked the support of the army. The generals Fleetwood and Lambert forced him to abdicate and summoned the coreparliament again. As it tried to cut down the army, it was dissolved. Finally, as everything else failed the monarchy was restored in 1660 and Charles II became king, the House of Commons and the House of Lords as well as the State church were reestablished.

----

===Aims===
The first aim was to secure the power and the second to expand it. This lead to a more active foreign policy. Leveller groups were dissolved and rebellions in Ireland and Scotland were defeated. 

----

===Ireland and Scotland===

The republic had a standing army of fourtyfourthousand men and thus posessed the greatest military power at that time, which it directed towards Ireland. Ireland's position was the total opposition towards England. Several incidents in Ireland (e.g. in Drogheda and Wexford) where many civilists were killed stirred up the hatred against England even more.
Then, Cromwell directed his power towards Scotland. He triumphed in Dunbar and Edinburgh. After Charles II and his troops were defeated in England, he fled to France and Scotland lost its independence for nine years.

----

===Religion===
In religious matters, a relative pluralism occured: the parrishes were left to decide how their mass should be like. Thus, the rule of Uniformity of the 16. century lapsed. For the first time since the middle ages, Jews were allowed to come to England from 1656 on. There was not obligatory mass on sunday, but on the other hand the decision of what to do on sundays was limited by strict rules that forbid every kind of amusement (including dance, sports, game and visiting inns).

----

===Trade===
In 1651, the Navigation Act was introduced, which lead to the war against the Netherlands. From 1652 to 1654, England was successful in several naval battles.

----

===Why did it fail===
The military power did not help to consolidate the new system as the public did not stand behind it. And furthermore, the core of the Parliament was represented by a minority. Some parts of the country were not represented at all. But it did not really matter who was on top as long as the result was still a financial burden. The republic did not fail because of powerful opposer but mainly because it lacked the acceptance of the political nation.

----

===Sources===

* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

Gunpowder Plot

2009-07-21T21:18:00Z

Azim:

English Catholicism already began to fade within the first years of the Stuart era. This is partly due to the plot of Catholics who tried to blow up the English Parliament on the day of its opening on 5 November 1605.

----

===What Happened===
An oppositional group of Catholics planned to blow up the Parliament and with it the whole political elite of England (the Commons, the Lords, King [[James I]] and his court). The plot had to be delayed because the Parliament was prorogated several times, e.g. due to plague outbreaks at the end of 1604. The group hid the gunpowder in the cellars under the Parliament, it was directly stored under the House of Lords.
The plot was discovered before something could happen. Lord Chamberlain Suffolk, accompanied by Lord Monteagle and others, made his rounds of the palace and encountered Guy Fawkes. Fawkes was mistaken for a servant and Lord Chamberlain noticed brushwood and faggots, which conceiled the gunpowder. But nothing else was discoverd as the goods were declared as belonging to a Mr. Thomas Percy, the tenant of the house. But then the king ordered a further inspection of the cellar and in the night of 4 November Fawkes was found and arrested. He was instructed to light the gunpowder on the 5 November at the very moment the king entered into the Lords. But the leaders of the plot did not give in, they fled and hid in Catholic 'safe houses'. In several incidents, some of the plotters were killed or wounded others were caught and put into the Tower and trialed on 27 January 1606.

----

===Who was involved===
One of the main plotters was Guy (Guido) Fawkes (1570-1606), a professional blaster. He was the son of a Protestant solicitor, who converted to Catholicism and who was finally executed in 1606, after he had served under the Spanish troops in the Netherlands.

"Last of all came the great devil of all, Guy Fawkes, alias Johnson, who should have put fire to the powder. His body being weak with the torture and sickness he was scarce able to go up the ladder, yet with much ado, by the help of the hangman, went high enough to break his neck by the fall. He made no speech, but with his crosses and idle ceremonies made his end upon the gallows and the block, to the great joy of all the beholders that the land was ended of so wicked a villainy." (Gunpowder Plot Society 2008: Guy Fawkes)

====The Thirteen Main Plotters====

* Thomas Bates
* Robert Catesby
* Sir Everad Digby
* Guy (Guido) Fawkes
* John Grant
* Robert Keyes
* Thomas Percy
* Ambrose Rookwood
* Francis Tresham
* Robert Wintour
* Thomas Wintour
* Christopher Wright
* John Wright

----

===Effects===
Just after the plot had been detected, the inhabitants of London were called to light bonfires as celebrate to both the king and the nobility which had survived.
Although this was just an individual action of some fanatics, it had a remarkable effect on England’s public opinion. Catholicism became something dubious and evoked thoughts of murder and assassination. English Catholics, who were involved in numerous political intrigues and conspiracies under the reign of [[Elizabeth I]], withdrew from politics after the Gunpowder Plot had failed. Despite this plot King James I did not introduce stricter rules against Catholics. 
Until this day, the uncovering of the plot is celebrated as [[Guy Fawkes Day]] on 5 November, when after a procession effigies are burnt. Thus, nobody should forget what a danger Catholics can be for a state.

----

===Sources===
* Buchanan, Brenda; et al. ''Gunpowder Plots: A Celebration of 400 Years of British Carelessness with Explosives''. London: Allen Lane, 2005.
* Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts: 1485-1714''. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2004.
* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

''Plotters''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/plotters.asp
21.07.2009

''Guy Fawkes''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008.
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/fawkes.asp
21.07.2009

Gunpowder Plot

2009-07-21T21:17:05Z

Azim:

English Catholicism already began to fade within the first years of the Stuart era. This is partly due to the plot of Catholics who tried to blow up the English Parliament on the day of its opening on 5 November 1605.

----

===What Happened===
An oppositional group of Catholics planned to blow up the Parliament and with it the whole political elite of England (the Commons, the Lords, King [[James I]] and his court). The plot had to be delayed because the Parliament was prorogated several times, e.g. due to plague outbreaks at the end of 1604. The group hid the gunpowder in the cellars under the Parliament, it was directly stored under the House of Lords.
The plot was discovered before something could happen. Lord Chamberlain Suffolk, accompanied by Lord Monteagle and others, made his rounds of the palace and encountered Guy Fawkes. Fawkes was mistaken for a servant and Lord Chamberlain noticed brushwood and faggots, which conceiled the gunpowder. But nothing else was discoverd as the goods were declared as belonging to a Mr. Thomas Percy, the tenant of the house. But then the king ordered a further inspection of the cellar and in the night of 4 November Fawkes was found and arrested. He was instructed to light the gunpowder on the 5 November at the very moment the king entered into the Lords. But the leaders of the plot did not give in, they fled and hid in Catholic 'safe houses'. In several incidents, some of the plotters were killed or wounded others were caught and put into the Tower and trialed on 27 January 1606.

----

===Who was involved===
One of the main plotters was Guy (Guido) Fawkes (1570-1606), a professional blaster. He was the son of a Protestant solicitor, who converted to Catholicism and who was finally executed in 1606, after he had served under the Spanish troops in the Netherlands.

"Last of all came the great devil of all, Guy Fawkes, alias Johnson, who should have put fire to the powder. His body being weak with the torture and sickness he was scarce able to go up the ladder, yet with much ado, by the help of the hangman, went high enough to break his neck by the fall. He made no speech, but with his crosses and idle ceremonies made his end upon the gallows and the block, to the great joy of all the beholders that the land was ended of so wicked a villainy." (Gunpowder Plot Society 2008: Guy Fawkes)

====The Thirteen Main Plotters====

* Thomas Bates
* Robert Catesby
* Sir Everad Digby
* Guy (Guido) Fawkes
* John Grant
* Robert Keyes
* Thomas Percy
* Ambrose Rookwood
* Francis Tresham
* Robert Wintour
* Thomas Wintour
* Christopher Wright
* John Wright

----

===Effects===
Just after the plot had been detected, the inhabitants of London were called to light bonfires as celebrate to both the king and the nobility which had survived.
Although this was just an individual action of some fanatics, it had a remarkable effect on England’s public opinion. Catholicism became something dubious and evoked thoughts of murder and assassination. English Catholics, who were involved in numerous political intrigues and conspiracies under the reign of [[Elizabeth I]], withdrew from politics after the Gunpowder Plot had failed. Despite this plot King James I did not introduce stricter rules against Catholics. 
Until this day, the uncovering of the plot is celebrated as [[Guy Fawkes Day]] on 5 November, when after a procession effigies are burnt. Thus, nobody should forget what a danger Catholics can be for a state.

----

===Sources===
* Buchanan, Brenda; et al. ''Gunpowder Plots: A Celebration of 400 Years of British Carelessness with Explosives''. London: Allen Lane, 2005.
* Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts: 1485-1714''. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2004.
* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

''Plotters''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/plotters.asp
21.07.2009

''Guy Fawkes''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008.
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/fawkes.asp
21.07.2009

Gunpowder Plot

2009-07-21T21:16:20Z

Azim:

English Catholicism already began to fade within the first years of the Stuart era. This is partly due to the plot of Catholics who tried to blow up the English Parliament on the day of its opening on 5 November 1605.

----

===What Happened===
An oppositional group of Catholics planned to blow up the Parliament and with it the whole political elite of England (the Commons, the Lords, King [[James I]] and his court). The plot had to be delayed because the Parliament was prorogated several times, e.g. due to plague outbreaks at the end of 1604. The group hid the gunpowder in the cellars under the Parliament, it was directly stored under the House of Lords.
The plot was discovered before something could happen. Lord Chamberlain Suffolk, accompanied by Lord Monteagle and others, made his rounds of the palace and encountered Guy Fawkes. Fawkes was mistaken for a servant and Lord Chamberlain noticed brushwood and faggots, which conceiled the gunpowder. But nothing else was discoverd as the goods were declared as belonging to a Mr. Thomas Percy, the tenant of the house. But then the king ordered a further inspection of the cellar and in the night of 4 November Fawkes was found and arrested. He was instructed to light the gunpowder on the 5 November at the very moment the king entered into the Lords. But the leaders of the plot did not give in, they fled and hid in Catholic 'safe houses'. In several incidents, some of the plotters were killed or wounded others were caught and put into the Tower and trialed on 27 January 1606.

----

===Who was involved===
One of the main plotters was Guy (Guido) Fawkes (1570-1606), a professional blaster. He was the son of a Protestant solicitor, who converted to Catholicism and who was finally executed in 1606, after he had served under the Spanish troops in the Netherlands.

"Last of all came the great devil of all, Guy Fawkes, alias Johnson, who should have put fire to the powder. His body being weak with the torture and sickness he was scarce able to go up the ladder, yet with much ado, by the help of the hangman, went high enough to break his neck by the fall. He made no speech, but with his crosses and idle ceremonies made his end upon the gallows and the block, to the great joy of all the beholders that the land was ended of so wicked a villainy." (Gunpowder Plot Society 2008: Guy Fawkes)

====The Thirteen Main Plotters====

* Thomas Bates
* Robert Catesby
* Sir Everad Digby
* Guy (Guido) Fawkes
* John Grant
* Robert Keyes
* Thomas Percy
* Ambrose Rookwood
* Francis Tresham
* Robert Wintour
* Thomas Wintour
* Christopher Wright
* John Wright

----

===Effects===
Just after the plot had been detected, the inhabitants of London were called to light bonfires as celebrate to both the king and the nobility which had survived.
Although this was just an individual action of some fanatics, it had a remarkable effect on England’s public opinion. Catholicism became something dubious and evoked thoughts of murder and assassination. English Catholics, who were involved in numerous political intrigues and conspiracies under the reign of [[Elizabeth I]], withdrew from politics after the Gunpowder Plot had failed. Despite this plot King James I did not introduce stricter rules against Catholics. 
Until this day, the uncovering of the plot is celebrated as [[Guy Fawkes Day]] on 5 November, when after a procession effigies are burnt. Thus, nobody should forget what a danger Catholics can be for a state.

----
===Sources===
* Buchanan, Brenda; et al. ''Gunpowder Plots: A Celebration of 400 Years of British Carelessness with Explosives''. London: Allen Lane, 2005.
* Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts: 1485-1714''. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2004.
* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

''Plotters''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/plotters.asp
21.07.2009

''Guy Fawkes''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008.
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/fawkes.asp
21.07.2009

Actresses

2009-07-21T21:15:47Z

Azim:

Before the theatres were closed down in 1642, female characters in the plays were usually played by males, often young boys, although women already took over some minor roles in e.g. mystery plays. When the theatres were reopened in 1660, i.a. the shortage of actors lead to the inclusion of women in female roles.

----

===The First Woman on Stage===

In December 1660, the first woman appeared on stage in the role of Desdemona in Thomas Killigrew’s production of ''Othello''. A prologue was written 

“to introduce the first Woman that came to act on the stage in the tragedy called the Moor of Venice: 
The Woman playes today, mistake me not, 
No Man in Gown, or Page in Petty-Coat” (Howe 1992: 19).

On 3 January 1661, [[Samuel Pepys|Pepys]] recorded in his diary that when he went to see a play at the King’s Company it was “the first time that ever I saw Women come upon the stage” (Howe 1992: 19).

----

===Reasons===

But apart from the shortage of actors, the reasons why the female characters were accepted have a more social and cultural background. During the Restoration, the sexual relation between men and women changed and women were granted their own individuality, they were seen as the opposite sex, yet they were still excluded from the public male sphere.
Before 1660, women already acted in court privacy, but were not fully accepted. This difference is due to the change in the audience. During the Interregnum, [[Charles II]] and the court spent much time abroad on the Continent where actresses were a normal feature. When the king returned to power in 1660, he supported the actresses in England; this was to be seen at the two theatres which were opened. The audience was more exclusive than in the Renaissance period where everyone could see a play for one penny, and its favour for the court explained the acceptance of women in the performances.

----

===The Two Companies===

Both Killigrew from the King’s Company and Davenant from the Duke’s Company started to recruit some actresses. Davenant recruited: Hester Davenport, Mary Saunderson, Jane Long, Anne Gibbs, Mrs. Jennings and Mrs. Norris. Killigrew recruited: Katherine Corey, Anne Marshall; Mrs. Eastland and Mrs. Weaver (Elizabeth Farley).

----

===Law and Women’s status===

By the middle of 1661, actresses were a proper part of the theatres in England. Men acting in female roles were not seen as serious anymore, their status became more one of curiosity.
In 1662, the casting of women for theatres became a law:

“we do […] permit and give leave that all the women’s parts to be acted in either of the said two companies for the time to come may be performed by women”. (Howe 1992: 25)

But the status of women in the workplace and their exclusion from the public sphere and executing power is still visible: the percentage of male actors was always higher and during the first years no women was allowed to be a sharer in one of the companies. William Davenant’s wife took over the role of the manager after his death in 1668 until in 1673 her son was old enough to step in his father’s place.
But even during Mrs. Davenant’s time as a manager, the actresses were low paid, and if they were married their husbands controlled their earnings. This might be the reason why the two most paid actresses Elizabeth Barry and Anne Bracegirdle remained unmarried.

----

===Sources===

* Brunkhorst, Martin. ''Drama und Theater der Restaurationszeit''. Heidelberg: Winter, 1985.

* Howe, Elizabeth. ''The first English Actresses: Women and Drama''. Cambridge: University Press, 1992.

Interregnum

2009-07-21T21:14:29Z

Azim:

Time between 1649 and 1660 when England was a republic.

----

===What happened===

On 30 January 1649, [[Charles I]] was executed and on 6 and 7 February the House of Lords and the monarchy were abolished. On 19 Mai 1649, England became a Commonwealth or Free State. Now, the administration lay in the hands of the Privy Council. The executive power was lead by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. Whereas before lawtexts mentioned the king, they now spoke of the "Keepers of the Liberties of England" (Heiner 1993: 182). But the republic remained a republic without republicans. 
On 20 April 1653, the core of the coreparliament was dissolved, in December the Puritans were included as the Parliament of Saints where they tried to influence politics according to their religion. A few days later, Cromwell was declared "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland" (Maurer 1997: 205). He tried to stabilised England through a written constitution. Cromwell was responsible for administration, foreign policy; he had a fixed budget and an army, but he was nevertheless dependant on the Parliament, which had to come together at least every three years. The following year, England, Ireland, and Scotland were united. The Parliament was dissolved but had to be recalled for the war against Spain. In that way, Oliver Cromwell tried to continue the naval power that England had under Elizabth I. 
On 3 September 1658 Oliver Cromwell died and his son Richard Cromwell could not keep his function up as he lacked the support of the army. The generals Fleetwood and Lambert forced him to abdicate and summoned the coreparliament again. As it tried to cut down the army, it was dissolved. Finally, as everything else failed the monarchy was restored in 1660 and Charles II became king, the House of Commons and the House of Lords as well as the State church were reestablished.

----

===Aims===
The first aim was to secure the power and the second to expand it. This lead to a more active foreign policy. Leveller groups were dissolved and rebellions in Ireland and Scotland were defeated. 

----

===Ireland and Scotland===

The republic had a standing army of fourtyfourthousand men and thus posessed the greatest military power at that time, which it directed towards Ireland. Ireland's position was the total opposition towards England. Several incidents in Ireland (e.g. in Drogheda and Wexford) where many civilists were killed stirred up the hatred against England even more.
Then, Cromwell directed his power towards Scotland. He triumphed in Dunbar and Edinburgh. After Charles II and his troops were defeated in England, he fled to France and Scotland lost its independence for nine years.

----

===Religion===
In religious matters, a relative pluralism occured: the parrishes were left to decide how their mass should be like. Thus, the rule of Uniformity of the 16. century lapsed. For the first time since the middle ages, Jews were allowed to come to England from 1656 on. There was not obligatory mass on sunday, but on the other hand the decision of what to do on sundays was limited by strict rules that forbid every kind of amusement (including dance, sports, game and visiting inns).

----

===Trade===
In 1651, the Navigation Act was introduced, which lead to the war against the Netherlands. From 1652 to 1654, England was successful in several naval battles.

----

===Why did it fail===
The military power did not help to consolidate the new system as the public did not stand behind it. And furthermore, the core of the Parliament was represented by a minority. Some parts of the country were not represented at all. But it did not really matter who was on top as long as the result was still a financial burden. The republic did not fail because of powerful opposer but mainly because it lacked the acceptance of the political nation.

----

===Sources===

* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

Interregnum

2009-07-21T21:07:13Z

Azim:

Time between 1649 and 1660 when England was a republic.

----

===What happened===

On January 1649, [[Charles I]] was executed and on 6 and 7 February the House of Lords and the monarchy were abolished. On 19 Mai 1649, England became a Commonwealth or Free State. Now, the administartion lay in the hands of the Privy Council with its fourty members. The executive power was lead by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. Whereas before lawtexts mentioned the king, they now spoke of the "Keepers of the Liberties of England" (Heiner 1993: 182). But the republic remained a republic without republicans. 
On 20 April 1653, the core of the coreparliament was dissolved, in December the Puritans were included as the Parliament of Saints where they tried to influence politics according to their religion. A few days later, Cromwell was declared "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland" (Maurer 1997: 205). He tried to stabilised England through a written constitution. Cromwell was responsible for administration, foreign policy, he had a fixed budget and an army, but he was nevertheless dependant on the Parliament, which had to come together at least every three years. The following year, England, Ireland, and Scotland were united. The Parliament was dissolved but had to be recalled for the war against Spain. In that way, Oliver Cromwell tried to continue the naval power that England had under Elizabth I. 
On 3 September 1658 Oliver Cromwell died and his son Richard Cromwell could not keep his function up as he lacked the support of the army. The generals Fleetwood and Lambert forced him to abdicate and summoned the coreparliament again. As it tried to cut down the army, it was dissolved again. Finally, as everything else failed the monarchy was restored in 1660 and Charles II became king, the House of Commons and the House of Lords as well as the State church were reestablished.

----

===Aims===
The first aim was to secure the power and the second to expand it. This lead to a more active foreign policy. Leveller groups were dissolved and rebellions in Ireland and Scotland were defeated. 

----

===Ireland and Scotland===

The republic had a standing army of fourtyfourthousand men and thus posessed the greatest military power at that time, which it directed towards Ireland. Ireland's position was the total opposition towards England. Several incidents in Ireland (e.g. in Drogheda and Wexford) where many civilists were killed stirred up the hatred against England even more.
Then, Cromwell directed his power towards Scotland. He triumphed in Dunbar and Edinburgh. After he and his troops were defeated in England, Charles II fled to France and Scotland lost its independence for nine years.

----

===Religion===
In religious matters, a relative pluralism occured: the parrishes were left to decide how their mass should be like. Thus, the rule of Uniformity of the 16. century lapsed. For the first time since the middle ages, Jews were allowed to come to England from 1656 on. There was not obligatory mass on sunday, but on the other hand the decicion of what to do on sundays was restricted by strict rules that forbid every kind of amusement (dance, sports, game and visiting inns).

----

===Trade===
In 1651, the Navigation Act was introduced, which lead to the war against the Netherlands. From 1652 to 1654, England was successful in several naval battles.

----

===Why did it fail===
But the military power did not help to consolidate the new system as the public did not stand behind it. And furthermore, the core of the Parliament was represented by a minority. Some parts of the country were not represented at all. But it not really matter who was on top as long as the result was still a finacial burden. The republic did not fail because of powerful opposer but mainly because it lacked the acceptance of the political nation.

----

===Sources===

* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

Interregnum

2009-07-21T20:43:05Z

Azim:

Time between 1649 and 1660 when England was a republic.

----

===What happened===

On January 1649, [[Charles I]] was executed and on 6 and 7 February the House of Lords and the monarchy were abolished. On 19 Mai 1649, England became a Commonwealth or Free State. Now, the administartion lay in the hands of the Privy Council with its fourty members. The executive power was lead by [[Oliver Cromwell]]. Whereas before lawtexts mentioned the king, they now spoke of the "Keepers of the Liberties of England" (Heiner 1993: 182). But the republic remained a republic without republicans. 
on 20 April 1653, the core of the Parliament was dissolved and on 15 December Cromwell was declared the Lord Protector. The following year, England, Ireland, and Scotland were united.
On 3 September 1658 Oliver Cromwell died and his son Richard Cromwell could not keep his function up as he lacked the support of the army. The generals Fleetwood and Lambert forced him to abdicate and summoned the core of the Parliament again. As it tried to cut down the army, it was dissolved again. Finally, as everything else failed the monarchy was restored in 1660 and Charles II became king, the House of Commons and the House of Lords as well as the State church were reestablished.

----

===Aims===
The first aim was to secure the power and the second to expand it. This lead to a more active foreign policy. Leveller groups were dissolved and rebellions in Ireland and Scotland were defeated. 
But the military power did not help to consolidate the new system as the public did not stand behind it. And furthermore the core of the Parliament was represented by a minority. Some parts of the country were not represented at all. But it not really matter who was on top as long as the result was still a finacial burden.

----

===Ireland and Scotland===

The republic had a standing army of fourtyfourthousand men and thus posessed the greatest military power at that time, which it directed towards Ireland. Ireland's position was the total opposition towards England. Several incidents in Ireland (e.g. in Drogheda and Wexford) where many civilists were killed stirred up the hatred against England even more.
Then, Cromwell directed his power towards Scotland. He triumphed in Dunbar and Edinburgh. After he and his troops were defeated in England, Charles II fled to France and Scotland lost its independence for nine years.

----

===Relifion===
In religious matters, a relative pluralism occured: the parrishes were left to decide how their mass should be like. Thus, the rule of Uniformity of the 16. century lapsed. There was not obligatory mass on sunday, but on the other hand the decicion of what to do on sundays was restricted by strict rules that forbid every kind of amusement.
----

===Why did it fail===
The republic did not fail because of powerful opposer but mainly because it lacked the acceptance of the political nation.

----

===Sources===

* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

Interregnum

2009-07-21T19:55:12Z

Azim:

Interregnum

2009-07-21T19:16:14Z

Azim: Created page with 'Time between 1649 and 1660 when England was a republic. ---- ===What happened=== On 17 march 1649, England became a republic. Now, the administartion lay in the hands of the …'

Time between 1649 and 1660 when England was a republic.

----

===What happened===

On 17 march 1649, England became a republic. Now, the administartion lay in the hands of the Privy Council with its fourty members. Whereas before lawtexts mentioned the king, they now spoke of the "Keepers of the Liberties of England" (Heiner 1993: 182).

----

===Sources===

* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.

Gunpowder Plot

2009-07-21T18:56:36Z

Azim:

English Catholicism already began to fade within the first years of the Stuart era. This is partly due to the plot of Catholics who tried to blow up the English Parliament on the day of its opening on 5 November 1605.

----

===What Happened===
An oppositional group of Catholics planned to blow up the Parliament and with it the whole political elite of England (the Commons, the Lords, King [[James I]] and his court). The plot had to be delayed because the Parliament was prorogated several times, e.g. due to plague outbreaks at the end of 1604. The group hid the gunpowder in the cellars under the Parliament, it was directly stored under the House of Lords.
The plot was discovered before something could happen. Lord Chamberlain Suffolk, accompanied by Lord Monteagle and others, made his rounds of the palace and encountered Guy Fawkes. Fawkes was mistaken for a servant and Lord Chamberlain noticed brushwood and faggots, which conceiled the gunpowder. But nothing else was discoverd as the goods were declared as belonging to a Mr. Thomas Percy, the tenant of the house. But then the king ordered a further inspection of the cellar and in the night of 4 November Fawkes was found and arrested. He was instructed to light the gunpowder on the 5 November at the very moment the king entered into the Lords. But the leaders of the plot did not give in, they fled and hid in Catholic 'safe houses'. In several incidents, some of the plotters were killed or wounded others were caught and put into the Tower and trialed on 27 January 1606.

----

===Who was involved===
One of the main plotters was Guy (Guido) Fawkes (1570-1606), a professional blaster. He was the son of a Protestant solicitor, who converted to Catholicism and who was finally executed in 1606, after he had served under the Spanish troops in the Netherlands.

"Last of all came the great devil of all, Guy Fawkes, alias Johnson, who should have put fire to the powder. His body being weak with the torture and sickness he was scarce able to go up the ladder, yet with much ado, by the help of the hangman, went high enough to break his neck by the fall. He made no speech, but with his crosses and idle ceremonies made his end upon the gallows and the block, to the great joy of all the beholders that the land was ended of so wicked a villainy." (Gunpowder Plot Society 2008: Guy Fawkes)

====The Thirteen Main plotters====

* Thomas Bates
* Robert Catesby
* Sir Everad Digby
* Guy (Guido) Fawkes
* John Grant
* Robert Keyes
* Thomas Percy
* Ambrose Rookwood
* Francis Tresham
* Robert Wintour
* Thomas Wintour
* Christopher Wright
* John Wright

----

===Effects===
Just after the plot had been detected, the inhabitants of London were called to light bonfires as celebrate to both the king and the nobility which had survived.
Although this was just an individual action of some fanatics, it had a remarkable effect on England’s public opinion. Catholicism became something dubious and evoked thoughts of murder and assassination. English Catholics, who were involved in numerous political intrigues and conspiracies under the reign of [[Elizabeth I]], withdrew from politics after the Gunpowder Plot had failed. Despite this plot King James I did not introduce stricter rules against Catholics. 
Until this day, the uncovering of the plot is celebrated as [[Guy Fawkes Day]] on 5 November, when after a procession effigies are burnt. Thus, nobody should forget what a danger Catholics can be for a state.

----
===Sources===
* Buchanan, Brenda; et al. ''Gunpowder Plots: A Celebration of 400 Years of British Carelessness with Explosives''. London: Allen Lane, 2005.
* Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts: 1485-1714''. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2004.
* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

''Plotters''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/plotters.asp
21.07.2009

''Guy Fawkes''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008.
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/fawkes.asp
21.07.2009

Gunpowder Plot

2009-07-21T18:54:10Z

Azim:

English Catholicism already began to fade within the first years of the Stuart era. This is partly due to the plot of Catholics who tried to blow up the English Parliament on the day of its opening on 5 November 1605.

----

===What Happened===
An oppositional group of Catholics planned to blow up the Parliament and with it the whole political elite of England (the Commons, the Lords, King [[James I]] and his court). The plot had to be delayed because the Parliament was prorogated several times, e.g. due to plague outbreaks at the end of 1604. The group hid the gunpowder in the cellars under the Parliament, it was directly stored under the House of Lords.
The plot was discovered before something could happen. Lord Chamberlain Suffolk, accompanied by Lord Monteagle and others, made his rounds of the palace and encountered Guy Fawkes. Fawkes was mistaken for a servant and Lord Chamberlain noticed brushwood and faggots, which conceiled the gunpowder. But nothing else was discoverd as the goods were declared as belonging to a Mr. Thomas Percy, the tenant of the house. But then the king ordered a further inspection of the cellar and in the night of 4 November Fawkes was found and arrested. He was instructed to light the gunpowder on the 5 November at the very moment the king entered into the Lords. But the leaders of the plot did not give in, they fled and hid in Catholic 'safe houses'. In several incidents, some of the plotters were killed or wounded others were caught and put into the Tower and trialed on 27 January 1606.

----

===Who was involved===
One of the main plotters was Guy (Guido) Fawkes (1570-1606), a professional blaster. He was the son of a Protestant solicitor, who converted to Catholicism and who was finally executed in 1606, after he had served under the Spanish troops in the Netherlands.

"Last of all came the great devil of all, Guy Fawkes, alias Johnson, who should have put fire to the powder. His body being weak with the torture and sickness he was scarce able to go up the ladder, yet with much ado, by the help of the hangman, went high enough to break his neck by the fall. He made no speech, but with his crosses and idle ceremonies made his end upon the gallows and the block, to the great joy of all the beholders that the land was ended of so wicked a villainy." (Fawkes 2008)

====The Thirteen Main plotters====

* Thomas Bates
* Robert Catesby
* Sir Everad Digby
* Guy (Guido) Fawkes
* John Grant
* Robert Keyes
* Thomas Percy
* Ambrose Rookwood
* Francis Tresham
* Robert Wintour
* Thomas Wintour
* Christopher Wright
* John Wright

----

===Effects===
Just after the plot had been detected, the inhabitants of London were called to light bonfires as celebrate to both the king and the nobility which had survived.
Although this was just an individual action of some fanatics, it had a remarkable effect on England’s public opinion. Catholicism became something dubious and evoked thoughts of murder and assassination. English Catholics, who were involved in numerous political intrigues and conspiracies under the reign of [[Elizabeth I]], withdrew from politics after the Gunpowder Plot had failed. Despite this plot King James I did not introduce stricter rules against Catholics. 
Until this day, the uncovering of the plot is celebrated as [[Guy Fawkes Day]] on 5 November, when after a procession effigies are burnt. Thus, nobody should forget what a danger Catholics can be for a state.

----
===Sources===
* Buchanan, Brenda; et al. ''Gunpowder Plots: A Celebration of 400 Years of British Carelessness with Explosives''. London: Allen Lane, 2005.
* Eßer, Raingard. ''Die Tudors und die Stuarts: 1485-1714''. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2004.
* Haan, Heiner; Niedhart, Gottfried. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. München: C.H.Beck, 1993.
* Maurer, Michael. ''Kleine Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1997.

''Plotters''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/plotters.asp
21.07.2009

''Guy Fawkes''. Gunpowder Plot Society. 2008.
http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/fawkes.asp
21.07.2009