British Culture - User contributions [en]

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:40:58Z

Daniel:

'''Sir Christopher Wren''' (1632-1723), best known as the architect of [[St Paul's cathedral]], was an astronomer, geographer, mathematician, physicist, in addition to being one of the best known British architects of all times. He was educated at Westminster School and later read latin and physics at Wadham College, Oxford. There he met [[John Wilkins]], who became a friend. Wren graduated B.A. in 1651 and M.A. in 1653, after which he became a fellow at All Souls College. However, in 1657 he was appointed Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College in London. As lecture attendence was free, a group of interested men soon formed, regularly frequenting Wrens lectures. These, John Wilkins, Wren himself and a number of other likeminded scientist, in 1662 founded the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge]]. He later, in the 1680s, became president of the Royal Society. Wrens interest as a scientist were very broad, encompassing astronomy, optics, geography, cosmology, mechanics, microscopy, surveying, medicine and meteorology. In 1661 he was elected Professor of Astronomy at Oxford.

In the mid-1660s Wren became interested in architecture, and studied a great number of buildings and books on the topic. After the [[Great Fire]] of 1666, he submitted a masterplan for rebuilding the whole city. While this was never adopted, Wren was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works, the highest position in the building industry in all of Britain. In his position he was responsible for overseeing the general rebuilding of the city. In order to focus on architecture, he quit his Oxford job. King [[Charles II]] knighted Wren in 1773.

==Incomplete list of architectural projects==
* Monument commemorating the Great Fire
* Royal Observatory
* Library at Trinity College, Cambridge
* Chelsea Hospital
* Reconstruction of the state room at Windsor Castle
* Chapel and council chamber at Whitehall
* Extension of Kensington Palace
* Hampton Court

==Sources==
* Gould, Heywood. ''Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Franklin Watts, 1970.
* Pevsner, Nikolaus. ''Christopher Wren 1632 - 1723'' Milano: Electa, 1958.
* Bennett, J. A. ''The mathematical science of Christopher Wren.'' Cambridge: CUP, 1982.
* Wren, Stephen. ''Parentalia: or, memoirs of the family of the Wrens'' Farnborough: Gregg, 1965.
* Elmes, James. ''Memoirs of the life and works of Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Priestley and Weale, 1823.
* Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. ''The Dictionary of National Biography''. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
* Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Wren Christopher Wren]. Accessed Tuesday, January 12th 2010.

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:40:38Z

Daniel: /* Incomplete list of architectural projects */

'''Sir Christopher Wren''' (1632-1723), best known as the architect of [[St Paul's cathedral]], was an astronomer, geographer, mathematician, physicist, in addition to being one of the best known British architects of all times. He was educated at Westminster School and later read latin and physics at Wadham College, Oxford. There he met [[John Wilkins]], who became a friend. Wren graduated B.A. in 1651 and M.A. in 1653, after which he became a fellow at All Souls College. However, in 1657 he was appointed Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College in London. As lecture attendence was free, a group of interested men soon formed, regularly frequenting Wrens lectures. These, John Wilkins, Wren himself and a number of other likeminded scientist, in 1662 founded the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge]]. He later, in the 1680s became president of the Royal Society. Wrens interest as a scientist were very broad, encompassing astronomy, optics, geography, cosmology, mechanics, microscopy, surveying, medicine and meteorology. In 1661 he was elected Professor of Astronomy at Oxford.

In the mid-1660s Wren became interested in architecture, and studied a great number of buildings and books on the topic. After the [[Great Fire]] of 1666, he submitted a masterplan for rebuilding the whole city. While this was never adopted, Wren was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works, the highest position in the building industry in all of Britain. In his position he was responsible for overseeing the general rebuilding of the city. In order to focus on architecture, he quit his Oxford job. King [[Charles II]] knighted Wren in 1773.

==Incomplete list of architectural projects==
* Monument commemorating the Great Fire
* Royal Observatory
* Library at Trinity College, Cambridge
* Chelsea Hospital
* Reconstruction of the state room at Windsor Castle
* Chapel and council chamber at Whitehall
* Extension of Kensington Palace
* Hampton Court

==Sources==
* Gould, Heywood. ''Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Franklin Watts, 1970.
* Pevsner, Nikolaus. ''Christopher Wren 1632 - 1723'' Milano: Electa, 1958.
* Bennett, J. A. ''The mathematical science of Christopher Wren.'' Cambridge: CUP, 1982.
* Wren, Stephen. ''Parentalia: or, memoirs of the family of the Wrens'' Farnborough: Gregg, 1965.
* Elmes, James. ''Memoirs of the life and works of Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Priestley and Weale, 1823.
* Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. ''The Dictionary of National Biography''. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
* Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Wren Christopher Wren]. Accessed Tuesday, January 12th 2010.

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:40:00Z

Daniel:

'''Sir Christopher Wren''' (1632-1723), best known as the architect of [[St Paul's cathedral]], was an astronomer, geographer, mathematician, physicist, in addition to being one of the best known British architects of all times. He was educated at Westminster School and later read latin and physics at Wadham College, Oxford. There he met [[John Wilkins]], who became a friend. Wren graduated B.A. in 1651 and M.A. in 1653, after which he became a fellow at All Souls College. However, in 1657 he was appointed Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College in London. As lecture attendence was free, a group of interested men soon formed, regularly frequenting Wrens lectures. These, John Wilkins, Wren himself and a number of other likeminded scientist, in 1662 founded the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge]]. He later, in the 1680s became president of the Royal Society. Wrens interest as a scientist were very broad, encompassing astronomy, optics, geography, cosmology, mechanics, microscopy, surveying, medicine and meteorology. In 1661 he was elected Professor of Astronomy at Oxford.

In the mid-1660s Wren became interested in architecture, and studied a great number of buildings and books on the topic. After the [[Great Fire]] of 1666, he submitted a masterplan for rebuilding the whole city. While this was never adopted, Wren was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works, the highest position in the building industry in all of Britain. In his position he was responsible for overseeing the general rebuilding of the city. In order to focus on architecture, he quit his Oxford job. King [[Charles II]] knighted Wren in 1773.

==Incomplete list of architectural projects==
* monument commemorating the Great Fire
* Royal Observatory
* library at Trinity College, Cambridge
* Chelsea Hospital
* reconstruction of the state room at Windsor Castle
* chapel and council chamber at Whitehall
* extension of Kensington Palace
* Hampton Court

==Sources==
* Gould, Heywood. ''Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Franklin Watts, 1970.
* Pevsner, Nikolaus. ''Christopher Wren 1632 - 1723'' Milano: Electa, 1958.
* Bennett, J. A. ''The mathematical science of Christopher Wren.'' Cambridge: CUP, 1982.
* Wren, Stephen. ''Parentalia: or, memoirs of the family of the Wrens'' Farnborough: Gregg, 1965.
* Elmes, James. ''Memoirs of the life and works of Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Priestley and Weale, 1823.
* Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. ''The Dictionary of National Biography''. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
* Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Wren Christopher Wren]. Accessed Tuesday, January 12th 2010.

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:39:49Z

Daniel: /* Incomplete list of architectural projects */

{{working|Daniel}}

'''Sir Christopher Wren''' (1632-1723), best known as the architect of [[St Paul's cathedral]], was an astronomer, geographer, mathematician, physicist, in addition to being one of the best known British architects of all times. He was educated at Westminster School and later read latin and physics at Wadham College, Oxford. There he met [[John Wilkins]], who became a friend. Wren graduated B.A. in 1651 and M.A. in 1653, after which he became a fellow at All Souls College. However, in 1657 he was appointed Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College in London. As lecture attendence was free, a group of interested men soon formed, regularly frequenting Wrens lectures. These, John Wilkins, Wren himself and a number of other likeminded scientist, in 1662 founded the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge]]. He later, in the 1680s became president of the Royal Society. Wrens interest as a scientist were very broad, encompassing astronomy, optics, geography, cosmology, mechanics, microscopy, surveying, medicine and meteorology. In 1661 he was elected Professor of Astronomy at Oxford.

In the mid-1660s Wren became interested in architecture, and studied a great number of buildings and books on the topic. After the [[Great Fire]] of 1666, he submitted a masterplan for rebuilding the whole city. While this was never adopted, Wren was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works, the highest position in the building industry in all of Britain. In his position he was responsible for overseeing the general rebuilding of the city. In order to focus on architecture, he quit his Oxford job. King [[Charles II]] knighted Wren in 1773.

==Incomplete list of architectural projects==
* monument commemorating the Great Fire
* Royal Observatory
* library at Trinity College, Cambridge
* Chelsea Hospital
* reconstruction of the state room at Windsor Castle
* chapel and council chamber at Whitehall
* extension of Kensington Palace
* Hampton Court

==Sources==
* Gould, Heywood. ''Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Franklin Watts, 1970.
* Pevsner, Nikolaus. ''Christopher Wren 1632 - 1723'' Milano: Electa, 1958.
* Bennett, J. A. ''The mathematical science of Christopher Wren.'' Cambridge: CUP, 1982.
* Wren, Stephen. ''Parentalia: or, memoirs of the family of the Wrens'' Farnborough: Gregg, 1965.
* Elmes, James. ''Memoirs of the life and works of Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Priestley and Weale, 1823.
* Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. ''The Dictionary of National Biography''. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
* Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Wren Christopher Wren]. Accessed Tuesday, January 12th 2010.

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:39:41Z

Daniel: /* Sources */

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:38:47Z

Daniel: /* Sources */

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:34:45Z

Daniel:

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:31:27Z

Daniel:

{{working|Daniel}}

'''Sir Christopher Wren''' (1632-1723), best known as the architect of [[St Paul's cathedral]], was an astronomer, geographer, mathematician, physicist, in addition to being one of the best known British architects of all times. He was educated at Westminster School and later read latin and physics at Wadham College, Oxford. There he met [[John Wilkins]], who became a friend. Wren graduated B.A. in 1651 and M.A. in 1653, after which he became a fellow at All Souls College. However, in 1657 he was appointed Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College in London. As lecture attendence was free, a group of interested men soon formed, regularly frequenting Wrens lectures. These, John Wilkins, Wren himself and a number of other likeminded scientist, in 1662 founded the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge]]. He later, in the 1680s became president of the Royal Society. Wrens interest as a scientist were very broad, encompassing astronomy, optics, geography, cosmology, mechanics, microscopy, surveying, medicine and meteorology. In 1661 he was elected Professor of Astronomy at Oxford.

In the mid-1660s Wren became interested in architecture, and studied a great number of buildings and books on the topic. After the [[Great Fire]] of 1666, he submitted a masterplan for rebuilding the whole city. While this was never adopted, Wren was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works, the highest position in the building industry in all of Britain. In his position he was responsible for overseeing the general rebuilding of the city. In order to focus on architecture, he quit his Oxford job. King [[Charles II]] knighted Wren in 1773.

==Incomplete list of architectural projects==
* monument commemorating the Great Fire
* Royal Observatory
* library at Trinity College, Cambridge
* Chelsea Hospital
* reconstruction of the state room at Windsor Castle
* chapel and council chamber at Whitehall
* extension of Kensington Palace
* Hampton Court

==Sources==

''Oxford Companion to English Literature''.

[[Category:Expansion]]

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:22:27Z

Daniel:

User:Daniel

2010-01-12T15:04:55Z

Daniel:

<div style="padding: 5px; background: #cef; border: 2px solid #33f; text-align: center;">[http://www.el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=User_talk:Daniel&action=edit&section=new Contact me via my talk page.]</div>

Hello. I am Daniel Lommes.

==Contributions==
===I created for the Restoration course...===
* [[Levellers]]
* [[Civil War]] (Yes, it is ridicolously long. But you cannot do it justice in any shorter form.)
* [[Proto-Socialism]]
* [[Diggers]]

===I created for the 18ct course...===
* [[William Pitt the Younger]]
* [[Richard Boyle]]

===I significantly expanded for the 18ct course...===
* [[Christopher Wren]]

Christopher Wren

2010-01-12T15:03:48Z

Daniel: working

{{working|Daniel}}

1631-1723. Educated at Westminster School and Wadham College, Oxford. Founding member of the Royal Society. Started out as professor of anatomy at Gresham College, then became professor of astronomy at Oxford. Famous, however, as architect who shaped London after the [[Great Fire of London|Great Fire]]. Among the famous buildings which he designed are [[St Paul's Cathedral]] and [[The Monument]].

Source:

''Oxford Companion to English Literature''.

[[Category:Expansion]]

Richard Boyle

2010-01-12T11:51:06Z

Daniel: created

'''Richard Boyle''' (1694 – 1753), the 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork, was called 'the Apollo of the Arts'. Born into a wealthy family, and inheriting his titles and estates at the age of ten, he took not one, but three [[Grand Tour]]s to Europe. On his trips to Europe he further developed his already existing interest in [[Andrea Palladio|Palladian]] architecture, visiting a great number of villas and other Rennaissance buildings.

After he returned from the continent, he stopped work on his baroque London residence, and employed a new architect, [[Colen Campbell]], to finish the house in a neo-palladian style. While he was mostly client on his own house, he then more and more developed to become an architect himself, taking on major projects, such as schools and assembly rooms. However, as he decided to pay the construction of large parts of these public buildings from his own funds, he soon got into money problems, forcing him to sell substantial parts of his estate. However, mainly due to his influence, Neo-Palladian architecture became a major trend, and many new country houses were built in this style.

In the early 1710s, Georg Frideric Handel stayed at Burlington House for a time, where he wrote and then dedicated his operas ''Teseo'' and ''Amadigi di Gaula'' to the young Richard Boyle.

Besides being an architect, Boyle also was a member of both the House of Lords and the Privy council of King [[George I]]. In August 1715, he was also made lord high treasurer of Ireland.

==Architectural projects (incomplete list)==
* Burlington House, Piccadilly, London (by Colen Campbell, minor contributions by Boyle)
* Tottenham Park, Wiltshire
* Westminster School, the Dormitory
* Old Burlington Street, London
* Belvedere Tower in Waldershare Park, Kent
* Chiswick House Villa, Middlesex
* Sevenoaks School, School House
* Facade of the York Assembly Rooms
* Castle Hill, Devonshire
* Northwick Park, Gloucestershire
* Kirby Hall, Yorkshire

==Sources==
*Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. ''The Dictionary of National Biography''. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
*Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Boyle,_3rd_Earl_of_Burlington Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington]. Accessed Tuesday, January 12th 2010.
*Arnold, Dana [Ed.]. ''Belov'd by Ev'ry Muse. Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington & 4th Earl of Cork (1694-1753).'' London: Georgian, 1994.
*Wittkower, Rudolf. ''Palladio and English Palladianism.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1985.

User:Daniel/Richard Boyle

2010-01-12T11:50:45Z

Daniel:

User:Daniel/Richard Boyle

2010-01-12T11:47:19Z

Daniel:

'''Richard Boyle''' (1694 – 1753), the 3rd Earl of Burlington and 4th Earl of Cork, was called 'the Apollo of the Arts'. Born into a wealthy family, and inheriting his titles and estates at the age of ten, he took not one, but three [[Grand Tour]]s to Europe. On his trips to Europe he further developed his already existing interest in [[Andrea Palladio|Palladian]] architecture, visiting a great number of villas and other Rennaissance buildings.

After he returned from the continent, he stopped work on his baroque London residence, and employed a new architect, [[Colen Campbell]], to finish the house in a neo-palladian style. While he was mostly client on his own house, he then more and more developed to become an architect himself, taking on major projects, such as schools and assembly rooms. However, as he decided to pay the construction of large parts of these public buildings from his own funds, he soon got into money problems, forcing him to sell substantial parts of his estate. However, mainly due to his influence, Neo-Palladian architecture became a major trend, and many new country houses were built in this style.

In the early 1710s, Georg Frideric Handel stayed at Burlington House for a time, where he wrote and then dedicated his operas ''Teseo'' and ''Amadigi di Gaula'' to the young Richard Boyle.

Besides being an architect, Boyle also was a member of both the House of Lords and the Privy council of King [[George I]]. In August 1715, he was also made lord high treasurer of Ireland.

==Sources==
*Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. ''The Dictionary of National Biography''. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
*Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Boyle,_3rd_Earl_of_Burlington Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington]. Accessed Tuesday, January 12th 2010.
*Arnold, Dana [Ed.]. ''Belov'd by Ev'ry Muse. Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington & 4th Earl of Cork (1694-1753).'' London: Georgian, 1994.
*Wittkower, Rudolf. ''Palladio and English Palladianism.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1985.

User:Daniel/Richard Boyle

2010-01-12T09:19:05Z

Daniel:

User:Daniel/Richard Boyle

2010-01-12T09:03:29Z

Daniel: Created page with ' ==Sources== *Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. ''The Dictionary of National Biography''. Oxford: OUP, 1917. *Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Boyle,_3rd_Earl_of_Burlington…'

==Sources==
*Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. ''The Dictionary of National Biography''. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
*Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Boyle,_3rd_Earl_of_Burlington Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington]. Accessed Tuesday, January 12th 2010.
*Arnold, Dana [Ed.]. ''Belov'd by Ev'ry Muse. Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington & 4th Earl of Cork (1694-1753).'' London: Georgian, 1994.
*Wittkower, Rudolf. ''Palladio and English Palladianism.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1985.

User:Daniel

2010-01-12T08:59:24Z

Daniel:

<div style="padding: 5px; background: #cef; border: 2px solid #33f; text-align: center;">[http://www.el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=User_talk:Daniel&action=edit&section=new Contact me via my talk page.]</div>

Hello. I am Daniel Lommes.

==Contributions==
===I created...===
* [[Levellers]]
* [[Civil War]] (Yes, it is ridicolously long. But you cannot do it justice in any shorter form.)
* [[Proto-Socialism]]
* [[Diggers]]
* [[William Pitt the Younger]]

* [[User:Daniel/Richard Boyle]]

Richard Boyle

2010-01-12T08:58:54Z

Daniel: working

User:Daniel

2009-11-10T16:47:45Z

Daniel:

<div style="padding: 5px; background: #cef; border: 2px solid #33f; text-align: center;">[http://www.el.rub.de/wiki/Brit-Cult/index.php?title=User_talk:Daniel&action=edit&section=new Contact me via my talk page.]</div>

Hello. I am Daniel Lommes.

==Contributions==
===I created...===
* [[Levellers]]
* [[Civil War]] (Yes, it is ridicolously long. But you cannot do it justice in any shorter form.)
* [[Proto-Socialism]]
* [[Diggers]]
* [[William Pitt the Younger]]

William Pitt the Younger

2009-11-10T16:47:32Z

Daniel:

'''William Pitt, the Younger''' (born 28 May 1759, died 23 January 1806) was an important politician in the late 18th and early 19th Century, who was Prime Minister from 1783-1801 and again from 1804 until his death.

==Early Life==
William was the second son of William Pitt (the Elder), the first earl of Chatham. Due to health problems he was educated at home by his father. He matriculated in Cambridge in 1773 and graduated M.A. in 1776. As his father died in 1778, he began practising law.

==Political Career==
Pitt was elected to Parliament in 1781, representing the University of Cambridge. He was an advocate of peace with the rebellious American colonies, and a friend of William Wilberforce, one of the main forces behind the abolition of slavery. In the 1782 government of William Petty, Earl of Shelburne, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer.
One year later, when Petty resigned, King [[George III]] appointed William Pitt to be the new prime minister, but Pitt declined. As in December of the same year another government fell, and the King offered him the post again, William Pitt accepted and became PM, being only 24 years old.
In January he received a vote of no confidence, but instead of resigning assured himself of the King's support and continued his premiership. His major administrative actions were the India Act (1784) and a substantial raising of taxes, in order to repay the national debt.
His political standing was seriously weakened by foreign problems. Britain proved unable to defeat the revolutionary government of France. However, when the army managed to quell the Irish Rebellion of 1798, his position was strenghthened. Parliament subsequently passed the Act of Union (1800) establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In light of this and considering the large number of new citizens of catholic belief, Pitt wanted to concede some rights to Roman Catholics. The king however disagreed strongly, so Pitt resigned on February, 16th 1801.
His second premiership was overshadowed by a series of defeats by Napoleon on the continent, though the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 secured British rule over the waves.

==Sources==
*Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. The Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
*Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger William Pitt the Younger]. Accessed Tuesday, November 10th 2009.

William Pitt the Younger

2009-11-10T16:47:13Z

Daniel: /* Political Career */

{{working|Daniel}}

'''William Pitt, the Younger''' (born 28 May 1759, died 23 January 1806) was an important politician in the late 18th and early 19th Century, who was Prime Minister from 1783-1801 and again from 1804 until his death.

==Early Life==
William was the second son of William Pitt (the Elder), the first earl of Chatham. Due to health problems he was educated at home by his father. He matriculated in Cambridge in 1773 and graduated M.A. in 1776. As his father died in 1778, he began practising law.

==Political Career==
Pitt was elected to Parliament in 1781, representing the University of Cambridge. He was an advocate of peace with the rebellious American colonies, and a friend of William Wilberforce, one of the main forces behind the abolition of slavery. In the 1782 government of William Petty, Earl of Shelburne, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer.
One year later, when Petty resigned, King [[George III]] appointed William Pitt to be the new prime minister, but Pitt declined. As in December of the same year another government fell, and the King offered him the post again, William Pitt accepted and became PM, being only 24 years old.
In January he received a vote of no confidence, but instead of resigning assured himself of the King's support and continued his premiership. His major administrative actions were the India Act (1784) and a substantial raising of taxes, in order to repay the national debt.
His political standing was seriously weakened by foreign problems. Britain proved unable to defeat the revolutionary government of France. However, when the army managed to quell the Irish Rebellion of 1798, his position was strenghthened. Parliament subsequently passed the Act of Union (1800) establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In light of this and considering the large number of new citizens of catholic belief, Pitt wanted to concede some rights to Roman Catholics. The king however disagreed strongly, so Pitt resigned on February, 16th 1801.
His second premiership was overshadowed by a series of defeats by Napoleon on the continent, though the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 secured British rule over the waves.

==Sources==

Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. The Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger William Pitt the Younger]. Accessed Tuesday, November 10th 2009.

William Pitt the Younger

2009-11-10T16:43:36Z

Daniel: /* Political Career */

{{working|Daniel}}

'''William Pitt, the Younger''' (born 28 May 1759, died 23 January 1806) was an important politician in the late 18th and early 19th Century, who was Prime Minister from 1783-1801 and again from 1804 until his death.

==Early Life==
William was the second son of William Pitt (the Elder), the first earl of Chatham. Due to health problems he was educated at home by his father. He matriculated in Cambridge in 1773 and graduated M.A. in 1776. As his father died in 1778, he began practising law.

==Political Career==
Pitt was elected to Parliament in 1781, representing the University of Cambridge. He was an advocate of peace with the rebellious American colonies, and a friend of William Wilberforce, one of the main forces behind the abolition of slavery. In the 1782 government of William Petty, Earl of Shelburne, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer.
One year later, when Petty resigned, King [[George III]] appointed William Pitt to be the new prime minister, but Pitt declined. As in December of the same year another government fell, and the King offered him the post again, William Pitt accepted and became PM, being only 24 years old.
In January he received a vote of no confidence, but instead of resigning assured himself of the King's support and continued his premiership. His major administrative actions were the India Act (1784) and a substantial raising of taxes, in order to repay the national debt.
His political standing was seriously weakened by foreign problems. Britain proved unable to defeat first the revolutionary government of France and then Napoleon. However, when the army managed to quell the Irish Rebellion of 1798, his position was strenghthened. Parliament subsequently passed the Act of Union (1800) establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In light of this and considering the large number of new citizens of catholic belief, Pitt wanted to concede some rights to Roman Catholics. The king however disagreed strongly, so Pitt resigned on February, 16th 1801.

William Pitt the Younger

2009-11-10T16:30:16Z

Daniel:

William Pitt the Younger

2009-11-10T16:28:34Z

Daniel:

William Pitt the Younger

2009-11-10T16:21:01Z

Daniel:

{{working|Daniel}}

'''William Pitt, the Younger''' (born 28 May 1759, died 23 January 1806) was the second son of William Pitt (the Elder) and an important politician in the late 18th Century.

William Pitt the Younger

2009-11-10T16:20:52Z

Daniel:

'''William Pitt, the Younger''' (born 28 May 1759, died 23 January 1806) was the second son of William Pitt (the Elder) and an important politician in the late 18th Century.

{{working|Daniel}}

William Pitt the Younger

2009-11-10T16:20:32Z

Daniel: Created page with ''''William Pitt, the Younger''' (born 28 May 1759, died 23 January 1806) was the second son of William Pitt (the Elder) and an important politician in the late 18th Century.'

'''William Pitt, the Younger''' (born 28 May 1759, died 23 January 1806) was the second son of William Pitt (the Elder) and an important politician in the late 18th Century.

Puritanism

2009-07-21T20:07:43Z

Daniel: linked, though i don't think Levellers and Diggers were religious sects. they seem more akin to modern political movements.

Puritans was the name given in the 16th century to the more extreme [[Protestantism|Protestants]] within the Church of England who thought the English Reformation had not gone far enough in [[Reformation|reforming]] the doctrines and structure of the church; they wanted to purify their national church by eliminating every shred of [[Catholicism|Catholic]] influence. In the 17th century many Puritans emigrated to the New World, where they sought to found a holy Commonwealth in New England. Puritanism remained the dominant cultural force in that area into the 19th century.
English Puritans were not associated with one single theological doctrine or definition of the church (although many were [[Calvinism|Calvinists]]), one common denominator, however, was their extremely critical attitude regarding the religious compromises made during the reign of [[Elizabeth I]]. They encouraged direct personal religious experience, sincere moral conduct, and simple worship services; their efforts in that direction were sustained by intense theological convictions and definite expectations about how seriously Christianity should be taken as the focus of human existence.

After [[James I]] became king of England in 1603, Puritan leaders asked him to grant several reforms. At the Hampton Court Conference (1604), however, he rejected most of their proposals, which included abolition of bishops. Puritanism, best expressed by William Ames and later by Richard Baxter, gained much popular support early in the 17th century. The government and the church hierarchy, however, especially under Archbishop William Laud, became increasingly repressive, causing many Puritans to emigrate. Those who remained formed a powerful element within the parliamentarian party that defeated [[Charles I]] in the English Civil War. During the Commonwealth, government was dominated by Puritans, among them [[Oliver Cromwell]] and [[John Milton]]. During the Commonwealth more radical (democratic, anarchic and/or proto-communist) Puritan sects emerged, such as [[Ranters]], [[Diggers]], [[Levellers]] and [[Quakers]]. The [[Restoration|restoration]] of the monarchy (1660) also restored Anglicanism as norm, and the Puritan clergy were expelled from the Church of England. Persecution was intensified after the rising of the [[Fifth Monarchy Men]] (or Venner's Rising) in 1661, according to the legislation of the so-called [[Clarendon Code]].
[[Dissenters]] (this was the umbrella term for members of Puritan sects, because they dissented from the teachings of the Anglican Church) were excluded from attending university and government posts. Adding insult to injury, the hypocritical, lecherous and stupid Puritan was a stock-character in Restoration comedy.

Convictions:
Puritanism generally extended the thought of the Reformation, with distinctive emphases on four convictions: (1) that personal salvation was entirely from God, (2) that the Bible provided the indispensable guide to life, (3) that the church should reflect the express teaching of Scripture, and (4) that society was one unified whole.

The Puritans believed that humankind was utterly dependent upon God for salvation. With their predecessors in England and with Luther and Calvin they believed that reconciliation with God came as a gift of his grace received by faith. They were Augustinians who regarded humans as sinners, unwilling and unable to meet the demands, or to enjoy the fellowship, of a righteous God apart from God's gracious initiative.

Source:
http://mb-soft.com/believe/txc/puritani.htm <br />
[Here you can read the full history of Puritanism in the UK and the US.]

Proto-Socialism

2009-07-21T20:01:56Z

Daniel: /* The Army */ important omission.

'''Proto-Socialism''' is a label for a number of left-wing ideas concerning the contemporary and ideal future state of society. In [[Civil War]] England a number of groups became known, which could be grouped under this label. Some of them derived their radical political ideas from [[religion]], some of them were completely a-religious. The best known of these were the [[Levellers]] and the [[Diggers]].

==Religion==
Religion in the 1600s still had an all-encompassing role, it formed the set of values which sanctioned more or less all social practices. This was especially true in rural areas of Britain. The call for [[religious freedom]], which followed the 16th-century [[Reformation]] and Counter-Reformation movements, therefore was implicitly also a questioning of the existing social order, of received hierarchies and ideologies beyond the religious realm.

==Class conflict==
The [[Civil War]] being fought against a King deemed tyrannical and milking the country through arbitrary taxation such as [[Ship Money]] further complicated things. While the wealthy elite, be they aristocrats, land-owners (who were usually identical with aristocrats) or merchants saw this as their major problem, the lower classes, especially in rural areas more often felt much more exploited by their local noblemen overcharging them or enclosing the common land. The war aim of the parliamentary army to establish a "true religion, the laws, liberty and peace of the Kingdome" (Petegorsky 1995: 60) thus had a very different meaning to common people than to the Army commanders, mostly recruited from the nobility. In fact, the meaning of "liberty" for a landowner was diametrically opposed to that of a peasant working the land.

==Economics==
The late 1640s then featured a series of devastating harvests, which lead to constantly rising food prices. Additionally the [[Long Parliament]] introduced the excise ordinant, essentially a tax on common goods, which disproportionately burdened low-income families. The Civil War had also led to a breakdown of the economy, and what little was left was often taken by looting armies. Furthermore landowners in many cases used the breakdown of authority to their advantage and began enclosing more common land than would have been possible before.

==The Army==
The parliamentary soldiers were also disaffected. While in the beginning of the civil war thousands of volunteers joined the armies, by 1643 voluntary service became inadequate. This, and an increase in cases of desertion, led to [[impressment]], that is forcing people to become soldiers. In addition, the rank and file became more and more aware of their difference from their commanders, which were mostly noblemen or otherwise of high status. This and the constantly late payments of soldiers led both to mutiny and the easy spreading of proto-socialist ideas in the military.

==Origins of the Levellers==
In one of the first petitions to parliament ''A remonstrance of many thousand citizens...'', [[Richard Overton]] wrote in 1646: "Ye are rich and abound in goods and have need of nothing; but the afflictions of the poor — your hunger-starved brethren — ye have no compassion of". This, in condensed form, stated the common belief that the upper classes fought this war for their self-interest and saw the common men as mere tools in their schemes, not as fellow citizens worthy of respect and a loaf of bread. It was in this context that the [[Levellers]] and later the [[Diggers]] appeared.

==Primary Sources==
* Overton, Richard. ''An arrow against all tyrants and tyranny, shot from the prison of Newgate into the prerogative bowels of the arbitrary House of Lords and all other usurpers and tyrants whatsoever. Wherein the original, rise, extent, and end of magisterial power, the natural and national rights, freedoms and properties of mankind are discovered and undeniably maintained; the late oppressions and encroachments of the Lords over the commons legally (by the fundamental laws and statutes of this realm, as also by a memorable extract out of the records of the Tower of London) condemned; the late Presbyterian ordinance (invented and contrived by the diviners, and by the motion of Mr Bacon and Mr Tate read in the House of Commons) examined, refuted, and exploded, as most inhumane, tyrannical and barbarous.'' London: Private printing, 1646. [http://www.constitution.org/lev/eng_lev_05.htm Online Version]

==References==
* Hill, Christopher. ''The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution.'' London: Temple Smith, 1972.
* Mendle, Michael (ed). ''The Putney Debates of 1647: The Army, the Levellers, and the English State.'' Cambridge: CUP, 2001
* Lingard, John. "The Commonwealth" ''A history of England from the first invasion of the Romans to the accession of William & Mary in 1688.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 2005.
* Coward, Barry. ''A Companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

St Paul's Cathedral

2009-07-21T11:59:17Z

Daniel: /* Architecture */

'''St Paul's Cathedral''' is one of the most famous cathedrals of London. It is an [[Anglican]] church rebuilt in the neoclassical style by [[Christopher Wren|Sir Christopher Wren]] from 1677-1708. Situated in the [[City of London]] it is an iconic part of the city's skyline. Moreover, St Paul’s is the cathedral of the Diocese of London and therefore is the seat of the Bishop of London.

==History==

The cathedral we see today is the fourth one at this place.
The Romans were the first ones who dedicated a temple to their goddess Diana right there.

===Middle Ages===

In 604 AD the first cathedral was build by St Ethelbert (552-616 AD), King of Kent who was the first Christian king of England.
He introduced St Mellitus as the first Bishop of London.
This first cathedral was mainly made of wood and was thus destroyed by a fire some 60-70 years later.

Between 675 and 685 AD the second cathedral was erected which lasted for almost 300 years until the Vikings destroyed it.

After that, Old St Paul's was build by the Normans (starting in 1087 AD). This one was already a gigantic building which was even bigger than today's cathedral. Until it was struck by lightning in 1561, it was not only the biggest building of England but it had also the highest tower of the world.

===Reformation and Changes===

Following the Reformation the nave was used in various ways, as, for instance, an indoor market hall (selling fish, beer, ale, meat & fruits),or as a market hall to find servants, as a place of assembly for jurists, as well as for horse traders.
At that time the tombs and the baptismal font served as counters.

In addition, the foot (1 ft = 30 cm) was defined as a unit of measurement at this place. It is similar to the foot length of the statue of St Algar.
The first lottery of Great Britain also took place in Old St Paul's during this time. The tickets were sold at the west entrance. Although a lot of money was earned with this lottery the funds were not used to overhaul the cathedral, but rather to repair ports.

=== Stuart Age===

Only in 1630 it was acknowledged that the cathedral was in need of repair.
Thus, [[Charles I]] tried to do everything in his power to rebuild it (with the involvement [[Inigo Jones]], the most prestigious architect at the time) but with the outbreak of the [[Civil War]] the operations came to a standstill again.

[[Oliver Cromwell]] used the cathedral as barracks for his cavalry. The parlamentarian army battered the windows, burned all the woodwork and eliminated the portraits and effigies.

===The Great Fire of London 1666===

Twenty years later the [[Great Fire of London]] levelled the cathedral to the ground in 1666. Its wooden roof was one of the main reasons for its burning down.

==Wren's Masterpiece==

Two years after the Great Fire Sir [[Christopher Wren]] was chosen to design the new structure of the church.
Out of different attempts his Greek Cross design was chosen. The influence of the [[Renaissance]] is distinctive, but also [[gothic]] features are respected. He started to build his masterpiece in 1675. The cathedral's building time lasted 35 years. St Paul's Cathedral was the first church to be built by just one architect and to be finished during his lifetime. In contrast to Old St Paul's the new cathedral is made out of brick and stone. The construction works came to a halt because of an earthquake in Dorset in 1690. Due to this earthquake the break up of the Portland sandstone had to stop and the material's replenishment was interrupted.

During the construction period Wren headquartered across the river. Even today one can see a memorial plaque on a red brick house near New [[Globe Theatre]] in Southwark.
He usually inspected the building site once a week, drawn up in a basket onto the roof and the cupola.
Sir Christopher Wren was one of the first who were laid to rest in the crypt of the cathedral.

==Architecture==
[[File:St_Pau's_cupola.jpg‎|thumb|The triple cupola of St Paul's]]
The cathedral clearly shows the influences from [[France]] and mainly Italy. Wren combined clear symmetry and order with ornamentation which shows his synthesis of [[baroque]] and [[neoclassical]] styles. This can clearly be seen in the Western facade. The portico is inspired by Greek and Roman temples. The towers on each side of the portico stand for the pomp and elegance of baroque architecture, and give the impression of massive stability. This conjunction projects a dynamic feeling of movement.
From the inside the combination of paintings, sculptures and architecture, in case of a mass even music, creates a [[Gesamtkunstwerk]], which according to John Evelyn "strikes the understanding as well as the eye with […] majesty and solemn greatness" (quoted in Briggs 168).

The most extraordinary part of the building is the cupola. The cross on top is 112 metres above the ground. Together with the lantern it weighs approximately 700 tons. The dome is a triple structure: While both the lead-covered outer and the decoratively painted inner dome are very lightweight, the middle structure is built of bricks, holding the weight of the lantern, the golden cross, as well as the domes themselves.

[[James II]] called the cathedral:"amusing, awful, and artificial", which meant - at that time - that he was simply delighted by this building.

==Trivia==

In 1925 a tear could be seen in the cupola. An immediate calling for donations brought about £230 000 - including 5 pence donated by 5 Scots.

==Tombs in St Paul's==

* Admiral David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty (crypt)
* Sir Alexander Fleming (crypt)
* Charles George Gordon
* William Holman Hunt (crypt)
* Admiral John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe (crypt)
* John of Gaunt, father of king Henry IV (old cathedral)
* Henry de Laci, 3rd Earl of Lincoln (old cathedral)
* Admiral Lord Nelson (crypt)
* Sir [[Philip Sidney]] (crypt)
* Sir Arthur Sullivan (crypt)
* Joseph Mallord William Turner (crypt)
* John Weldon (old cathedral)
* Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (crypt)
* Fieldmarshall Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley (crypt)
* Sir [[Christopher Wren]] (crypt)

Not buried in St Paul's are Winston Churchill and Florence Nightingale; although both have a memorial in the cathedral's crypt.

==References and Further Reading==
* Stevenson, Neil. ''Annotated Guides - Architecture''. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2006.
* Lang, Jane. ''Rebuilding St. Paul's after the Great Fire of London.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956.
* Matthews, Walter Robert. ''A history of St. Paul's Cathedral and the men associated with it.'' London: Baker, 1964.
* Michael Maurer. ''Eine kleine Geschichte Englands.''Stuttgart: Reclam, 2007.
* Coward, Barry, ed. ''A Companion to Stuart Britain.'' Malden: Blackwell, 2003.
* Briggs, Asa. ''A Social History of England.'' Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1999.
* Yapp, Nick and Rupert Tenison. ''London - Geheimnisse&Glanz einer Weltstadt''. Köln: Könemann, 1999.

===Links===
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05553b.htm St Ethelbert]
* [http://www.stpauls.co.uk/Cathedral-History St Paul's Cathedral website]
* [http://deu.archinform.net/projekte/3835.htm St Paul's Cathedral on archinform.net]

Proto-Socialism

2009-07-21T11:57:31Z

Daniel: source for the overton quote

'''Proto-Socialism''' is a label for a number of left-wing ideas concerning the contemporary and ideal future state of society. In [[Civil War]] England a number of groups became known, which could be grouped under this label. Some of them derived their radical political ideas from [[religion]], some of them were completely a-religious. The best known of these were the [[Levellers]] and the [[Diggers]].

==Religion==
Religion in the 1600s still had an all-encompassing role, it formed the set of values which sanctioned more or less all social practices. This was especially true in rural areas of Britain. The call for [[religious freedom]], which followed the 16th-century [[Reformation]] and Counter-Reformation movements, therefore was implicitly also a questioning of the existing social order, of received hierarchies and ideologies beyond the religious realm.

==Class conflict==
The [[Civil War]] being fought against a King deemed tyrannical and milking the country through arbitrary taxation such as [[Ship Money]] further complicated things. While the wealthy elite, be they aristocrats, land-owners (who were usually identical with aristocrats) or merchants saw this as their major problem, the lower classes, especially in rural areas more often felt much more exploited by their local noblemen overcharging them or enclosing the common land. The war aim of the parliamentary army to establish a "true religion, the laws, liberty and peace of the Kingdome" (Petegorsky 1995: 60) thus had a very different meaning to common people than to the Army commanders, mostly recruited from the nobility. In fact, the meaning of "liberty" for a landowner was diametrically opposed to that of a peasant working the land.

==Economics==
The late 1640s then featured a series of devastating harvests, which lead to constantly rising food prices. Additionally the [[Long Parliament]] introduced the excise ordinant, essentially a tax on common goods, which disproportionately burdened low-income families. The Civil War had also led to a breakdown of the economy, and what little was left was often taken by looting armies. Furthermore landowners in many cases used the breakdown of authority to their advantage and began enclosing more common land than would have been possible before.

==The Army==
The parliamentary soldiers were also disaffected. While in the beginning of the civil war thousands of volunteers joined the armies, by 1643 voluntary service became adequate. This, and an increase in cases of desertion, led to [[impressment]], that is forcing people to become soldiers. In addition, the rank and file became more and more aware of their difference from their commanders, which were mostly noblemen or otherwise of high status. This and the constantly late payments of soldiers led both to mutiny and the easy spreading of proto-socialist ideas in the military.

==Origins of the Levellers==
In one of the first petitions to parliament ''A remonstrance of many thousand citizens...'', [[Richard Overton]] wrote in 1646: "Ye are rich and abound in goods and have need of nothing; but the afflictions of the poor — your hunger-starved brethren — ye have no compassion of". This, in condensed form, stated the common belief that the upper classes fought this war for their self-interest and saw the common men as mere tools in their schemes, not as fellow citizens worthy of respect and a loaf of bread. It was in this context that the [[Levellers]] and later the [[Diggers]] appeared.

==Primary Sources==
* Overton, Richard. ''An arrow against all tyrants and tyranny, shot from the prison of Newgate into the prerogative bowels of the arbitrary House of Lords and all other usurpers and tyrants whatsoever. Wherein the original, rise, extent, and end of magisterial power, the natural and national rights, freedoms and properties of mankind are discovered and undeniably maintained; the late oppressions and encroachments of the Lords over the commons legally (by the fundamental laws and statutes of this realm, as also by a memorable extract out of the records of the Tower of London) condemned; the late Presbyterian ordinance (invented and contrived by the diviners, and by the motion of Mr Bacon and Mr Tate read in the House of Commons) examined, refuted, and exploded, as most inhumane, tyrannical and barbarous.'' London: Private printing, 1646. [http://www.constitution.org/lev/eng_lev_05.htm Online Version]

==References==
* Hill, Christopher. ''The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution.'' London: Temple Smith, 1972.
* Mendle, Michael (ed). ''The Putney Debates of 1647: The Army, the Levellers, and the English State.'' Cambridge: CUP, 2001
* Lingard, John. "The Commonwealth" ''A history of England from the first invasion of the Romans to the accession of William & Mary in 1688.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 2005.
* Coward, Barry. ''A Companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

Catholic

2009-07-20T18:58:32Z

Daniel: Redirected page to Catholicism

#REDIRECT [[Catholicism]]

Charles I

2009-07-20T18:56:04Z

Daniel:

(1600-1649). Son of King [[James I]] of England, King of England, Scotland and Wales from 1625 to his execution in 1649.

==Biography==

He was born to James VI of Scotland and [[Anne of Denmark]] in Dunfermline, Fife, on 16 November 1600. He was raised in the belief that the king rules by the grace of God. His older brother Henry who Charles adored, died in 1612 which - according to the laws of primogeniture - made him the legal successor to the throne. He became King in 1625. He married Henrietta Mary of France on 13th June 1625 with whom he had nine children:

• Charles James (*/† 13. Mai 1629)
• [[Charles II]] (1630–1685)
• Mary (1631–1660) ∞ [[William II]], Prince of Orange
• [[James II]] (1633–1701)
• Elisabeth (29th December 1635–13th September 1650)
• Anne (17th March 1637–15th November 1640)
• Katherine (*/† 29 June 1639)
• Henry, Duke of Gloucester (8th July 1640–8th September 1660)
• Henrietta Anne (1644–1670) ∞ Philipp I., Duke of Orleans.

He was beheaded on 30th January 1649 in London and is buried in [[St. George’s Chapel]], Windsor.

==Reign==

His reign was marked by religious conflicts. He married a French and Catholic princess, which did not go down well with both Parliament and public. He furthermore allied with religiously controversial figures, among them [[William Laud]], who Charles I appointed Archbishop in 1633.

Like his father James before him, Charles I also came into conflict with Parliament and tried to rule without it. He managed to do so from 1629 to 1640. Due to the war with Scotland in 1639, he had to call Parliament after all. And this is where the problems started.

==Civil War==
''For more on this topic, see [[Civil War]].''

===1st Civil War===

In 1639, Charles I asked the parliament for extra money for the war against Scotland. Parliament was only willing to accept his enquiry if in return Charles was willing to accept an infringement of his prerogative. He refused and as a consequence parliament did not give any money.

In wrath and in desire to demonstrate his power Charles I dissolved Parliament after only three weeks (hence the name [[Short Parliament]]). In November 1640 a new Parliament convened which proved as stubborn as its predecessor (and which was to exist until 1660, hence the name [[Long Parliament]]). This Parliament directly went against Charles I and refused everything. It passed a law which forbade a dissolution of parliament without the agreement of parliament. It declared ship money illegal.

During the [[Civil War|Civil Wars]], Charles I and his troops (the "Royalists") fought against the Parliamentarian faction (also known as "Roundheads"). The First Civil War started in 1642 and lasted until 1645. The Royalists lost. Parliament wanted Charles to accept an infringement of his prerogatives, which he refused. Instead, he fostered an alliance with Scotland and escaped to the Isle of Wight.

===2nd Civil War===

During the 2nd Civil War (1648-1649) Charles I was imprisoned. The Civil War led to the trial and execution of Charles I and the exile of his son [[Charles II]]. He was tried, convicted and executed for high treason.

===Execution===
Charles I was the first of the English kings to be put on trial. He was accused on 1st January 1649 of being a tyrant, traitor and murderer as well as a public enemy to the Commonwealth of England which eventually led to his execution. He was executed on 30th January 1649 followed by the abolition of the monarchy.

==Aftermath==

Parliament confirmed that the monarchy was an unnecessary institution and had therefore to be replaced by a republic called the [[Commonwealth|Commonwealth of England]] (1649-1653), often also referred to as the [[Cromwellian Interregnum]], which gave way to a [[Protectorate]] (1653-1658) under the reign of [[Oliver Cromwell]].

After the [[restoration]] of the monarchy in 1660, Charles I’s son Charles II became King of England.

==Novels on Charles I==
*Lane, Jane. ''The Young and Lonely King''. London: Sphere, 1971.

*Lane, Jane. ''The Severed Crown''. London: Peter Davis, 1972.

==Films on the Charles I==
Several different films as well as documentaries on Charles I have been produced and shown on TV:

[[Cromwell (Movie)|Cromwell]] (1970), directed by Ken Hughes.

Great Kings of England: King Charles I (2000)

==Poetry on Charles I==
*[[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]. “Archie’s Song from Charles I”

*Anonymus. “Upon a Quiet Conscience”

==External links==

<http://anglicanhistory.org/charles/charles1.html> cites the last speech of Charles I just before his execution in London in 1649.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/charles_i_king.shtml>

==References and Further Reading==
* Carlton, Charles. ''Charles I: The Personal Monarch''. London. Routledge, 1995.

* Cust, Richard. ''Charles I: A Political Life''. Harlow: Pearson, 2007.

* Hibbert, Christopher. ''Charles I: A Life of Religion, War and Treason''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

*Partridge, Robert B. ''O Horrible Murder: The Trial, Execution and Burial of King Charles I'' London: Rubicon Press. 1998.

*Sharpe, Kevin. ''The Personal Rule of Charles I''. Yale: Yale University Press, 1992.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/personality_charles_01.shtml>

<http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/charles1.htm>

<http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon47.html>

Charles I

2009-07-20T18:55:35Z

Daniel:

(1600-1649). Son of King [[James I]] of England, King of England, Scotland and Wales from 1625 to his execution in 1649.

==Biography==

He was born to James VI of Scotland and [[Anne of Denmark]] in Dunfermline, Fife, on 16 November 1600. He was raised in the belief that the king rules by the grace of God. His older brother Henry who Charles adored, died in 1612 which - according to the laws of primogeniture - made him the legal successor to the throne. He became King in 1625. He married Henrietta Mary of France on 13th June 1625 with whom he had nine children:

• Charles James (*/† 13. Mai 1629)
• [[Charles II]] (1630–1685)
• Mary (1631–1660) ∞ [[William II]], Prince of Orange
• [[James II]] (1633–1701)
• Elisabeth (29th December 1635–13th September 1650)
• Anne (17th March 1637–15th November 1640)
• Katherine (*/† 29 June 1639)
• Henry, Duke of Gloucester (8th July 1640–8th September 1660)
• Henrietta Anne (1644–1670) ∞ Philipp I., Duke of Orleans.

He was beheaded on 30th January 1649 in London and is buried in [[St. George’s Chapel]], Windsor.

==Reign==

His reign was marked by religious conflicts. He married a French and Catholic princess, which did not go down well with both Parliament and public. He furthermore allied with religiously controversial figures, among them [[William Laud]], who Charles I appointed Archbishop in 1633.

Like his father James before him, Charles I also came into conflict with Parliament and tried to rule without it. He managed to do so from 1629 to 1640. Due to the war with Scotland in 1639, he had to call Parliament after all. And this is where the problems started.

==Civil War==
''For more on this topic, see [[Civil War]].''

===1st Civil War===

In 1639, Charles I asked the parliament for extra money for the war against Scotland. Parliament was only willing to accept his enquiry if in return Charles was willing to accept an infringement of his prerogative. He refused and as a consequence parliament did not give any money.

In wrath and in desire to demonstrate his power Charles I dissolved Parliament after only three weeks (hence the name [[Short Parliament]]). In November 1640 a new Parliament convened which proved as stubborn as its predecessor (and which was to exist until 1660, hence the name [[Long Parliament]]). This Parliament directly went against Charles I and refused everything. It passed a law which forbade a dissolution of parliament without the agreement of parliament. It declared ship money illegal.

During the [[Civil War|Civil Wars]], Charles I and his troops (the "Royalists") fought against the Parliamentarian faction (also known as "Roundheads"). The First Civil War started in 1642 and lasted until 1645. The Royalists lost. Parliament wanted Charles to accept an infringement of his prerogatives, which he refused. Instead, he fostered an alliance with Scotland and escaped to the Isle of Wight.

===2nd Civil War===

During the 2nd Civil War (1648-1649) Charles I was imprisoned. The Civil War led to the trial and execution of Charles I and the exile of his son [[Charles II]]. He was tried, convicted and executed for high treason.

==Execution==
Charles I was the first of the English kings to be put on trial. He was accused on 1st January 1649 of being a tyrant, traitor and murderer as well as a public enemy to the Commonwealth of England which eventually led to his execution. He was executed on 30th January 1649 followed by the abolition of the monarchy.

==Aftermath==

Parliament confirmed that the monarchy was an unnecessary institution and had therefore to be replaced by a republic called the [[Commonwealth|Commonwealth of England]] (1649-1653), often also referred to as the [[Cromwellian Interregnum]], which gave way to a [[Protectorate]] (1653-1658) under the reign of [[Oliver Cromwell]].

After the [[restoration]] of the monarchy in 1660, Charles I’s son Charles II became King of England.

==Novels on Charles I==
*Lane, Jane. ''The Young and Lonely King''. London: Sphere, 1971.

*Lane, Jane. ''The Severed Crown''. London: Peter Davis, 1972.

==Films on the Charles I==
Several different films as well as documentaries on Charles I have been produced and shown on TV:

[[Cromwell (Movie)|Cromwell]] (1970), directed by Ken Hughes.

Great Kings of England: King Charles I (2000)

==Poetry on Charles I==
*[[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]. “Archie’s Song from Charles I”

*Anonymus. “Upon a Quiet Conscience”

==External links==

<http://anglicanhistory.org/charles/charles1.html> cites the last speech of Charles I just before his execution in London in 1649.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/charles_i_king.shtml>

==References and Further Reading==
* Carlton, Charles. ''Charles I: The Personal Monarch''. London. Routledge, 1995.

* Cust, Richard. ''Charles I: A Political Life''. Harlow: Pearson, 2007.

* Hibbert, Christopher. ''Charles I: A Life of Religion, War and Treason''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

*Partridge, Robert B. ''O Horrible Murder: The Trial, Execution and Burial of King Charles I'' London: Rubicon Press. 1998.

*Sharpe, Kevin. ''The Personal Rule of Charles I''. Yale: Yale University Press, 1992.

<http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/personality_charles_01.shtml>

<http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/charles1.htm>

<http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon47.html>

Aphra Behn

2009-07-19T16:11:22Z

Daniel:

[[Image:aphra.jpg|thumb]]
'''Aphra Behn''' was a famous Restoration poet and author, born 1640, Harbledown, Kent - died April 16, 1689, London.

==Life==

There is no definite information about Aphra Behn’s early life. She may have been the child of the Amis family who, together with their child “Ayfara” or “Aphra” went to Suriname in South America in the 1650s. The second possibility is that she was the daughter of the barber Bartholomew Johnson who also went to Suriname in 1663 with his family .
She returned to England in the following year and married a merchant named Behn. Mr Behn either died or the two separated soon afterwards and so Aphra Behn had to earn her own money and worked for King [[Charles II]] in the secret service in the Netherlands in 1666. After a brief imprisonment due to heavy debts, she started her writing career.

==Works==
1670 -- ''The Forced Marriage''
1671 -- ''The Amourous Prince''
1672 -- ''Covent Garden Drollery'' (probably edited by Behn)
1673 -- ''The Dutch Lover''
1675 -- Possible plays by Behn: ''The Revenge: Or a Match in Newgate'', and ''The Woman Turned Bully''
1676 –- ''Abdelazer'', ''The Town Fop''
1677 -- ''The Rover'' (March), ''The Debauchee'' (February) and ''The Counterfeit Bridegroom'' (September)
1678 -- ''Sir Patient Fancy'' (January)
1679 -- ''The Feigned Courtesans'' (spring), ''The Young King'' (autumn)
1681 -- The Second Part of ''The Rover'', ''The False Count'' (November) and ''The Roundheads'' (December)
1682 -- ''The City Heiress'' (spring), ''Like Father, Like Son''
1683 -- Publication of the first part of ''Love Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister''
1684 -- Publication of ''Poems on Several Occasions''
1685 -- Publication of ''Miscellany''
1686 -- Publication of ''The Lover's Watch'', ''The Lucky Chance''
1687 -- ''The Emperor of the Moon'' (March)
1688 -- Publication of prose fiction works: ''The Fair Jilt'', ''Agnes de Castro'' and ''Oroonoko''

===Drama===

As mentioned before, Behn was a professional author writing to earn her living, which means that she was oriented towards the literary market and the taste of the audience. She produced very different kinds of genre. Behn’s first plays were two tragicomedies called ''The Forced Marriage'', produced in 1670 and ''The Amorous Prince'' in 1671 . Afterwards followed ''The Dutch Lover'' and possibly three more plays before she wrote her tragedy, ''Abdelazer'', which was performed in 1676 . Thereafter she preferred writing light comedy and farce, like ''The Rover''. Her last play was ''The Emperor of the Moon'', which was performed in 1687.
Her comedies are remarkable because they take a popular format and infuse it with discussions of - then - serious problems, such as incompatible marriages or the tensions between love and money. In some of her works love justifies illegal actions (by both men and women).

===Fiction===

''[[Oroonoko]]'' was published in 1688. It tells the story of an enslaved prince from Africa whom Aphra Behn claims to have met in person. Its contemporary themes like slavery, race, and gender made it Behn’s best known work. Others include the epistolary novels ''Love-Letters Between a Nobleman'' and ''His Sister'' (1684–87), which were the first epistolary novel in English literature .

===Poetry ===

Behn also wrote poetry successfully and published the majority of her poems in a collection called ''Poems upon Several Occasions'' in 1684. Some of her poems were thought to have been written by John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester - an indication of their high quality and also of their liberal and open treatment of sexual matters.

==Sources==
*Gill, Pat. “Gender, Sexuality, and Marriage” in ''The Cambridge Companion to English Restoration Theatre''. Ed. D. Payne Fiske. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
*Howe, Elizabeth. ''The First English Actresses. Women and Drama 1660-1700.'' Cambridge: CUP, 1993.
Korninger, Siegfried. ''The Restoration Period and the Eighteenth Century. 1660 – 1780''. München: Österreichischer Bundesverlag Wien, 1964.
*Nestvold, Ruth. ''The Aphra Behn Page'' 07 May 2009 [http://www.lit-arts.net/Behn/chron-ab.htm]
*"Behn, Aphra." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 Apr. 2009
[http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014136]

Aphra Behn

2009-07-19T16:11:05Z

Daniel: cleanup

[[Image:aphra.jpg|thumb]]
Aphra Behn was a famous Restoration poet, born 1640, Harbledown, Kent - died April 16, 1689, London.

==Life==

There is no definite information about Aphra Behn’s early life. She may have been the child of the Amis family who, together with their child “Ayfara” or “Aphra” went to Suriname in South America in the 1650s. The second possibility is that she was the daughter of the barber Bartholomew Johnson who also went to Suriname in 1663 with his family .
She returned to England in the following year and married a merchant named Behn. Mr Behn either died or the two separated soon afterwards and so Aphra Behn had to earn her own money and worked for King [[Charles II]] in the secret service in the Netherlands in 1666. After a brief imprisonment due to heavy debts, she started her writing career.

==Works==
1670 -- ''The Forced Marriage''
1671 -- ''The Amourous Prince''
1672 -- ''Covent Garden Drollery'' (probably edited by Behn)
1673 -- ''The Dutch Lover''
1675 -- Possible plays by Behn: ''The Revenge: Or a Match in Newgate'', and ''The Woman Turned Bully''
1676 –- ''Abdelazer'', ''The Town Fop''
1677 -- ''The Rover'' (March), ''The Debauchee'' (February) and ''The Counterfeit Bridegroom'' (September)
1678 -- ''Sir Patient Fancy'' (January)
1679 -- ''The Feigned Courtesans'' (spring), ''The Young King'' (autumn)
1681 -- The Second Part of ''The Rover'', ''The False Count'' (November) and ''The Roundheads'' (December)
1682 -- ''The City Heiress'' (spring), ''Like Father, Like Son''
1683 -- Publication of the first part of ''Love Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister''
1684 -- Publication of ''Poems on Several Occasions''
1685 -- Publication of ''Miscellany''
1686 -- Publication of ''The Lover's Watch'', ''The Lucky Chance''
1687 -- ''The Emperor of the Moon'' (March)
1688 -- Publication of prose fiction works: ''The Fair Jilt'', ''Agnes de Castro'' and ''Oroonoko''

===Drama===

As mentioned before, Behn was a professional author writing to earn her living, which means that she was oriented towards the literary market and the taste of the audience. She produced very different kinds of genre. Behn’s first plays were two tragicomedies called ''The Forced Marriage'', produced in 1670 and ''The Amorous Prince'' in 1671 . Afterwards followed ''The Dutch Lover'' and possibly three more plays before she wrote her tragedy, ''Abdelazer'', which was performed in 1676 . Thereafter she preferred writing light comedy and farce, like ''The Rover''. Her last play was ''The Emperor of the Moon'', which was performed in 1687.
Her comedies are remarkable because they take a popular format and infuse it with discussions of - then - serious problems, such as incompatible marriages or the tensions between love and money. In some of her works love justifies illegal actions (by both men and women).

===Fiction===

''[[Oroonoko]]'' was published in 1688. It tells the story of an enslaved prince from Africa whom Aphra Behn claims to have met in person. Its contemporary themes like slavery, race, and gender made it Behn’s best known work. Others include the epistolary novels ''Love-Letters Between a Nobleman'' and ''His Sister'' (1684–87), which were the first epistolary novel in English literature .

===Poetry ===

Behn also wrote poetry successfully and published the majority of her poems in a collection called ''Poems upon Several Occasions'' in 1684. Some of her poems were thought to have been written by John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester - an indication of their high quality and also of their liberal and open treatment of sexual matters.

==Sources==
*Gill, Pat. “Gender, Sexuality, and Marriage” in ''The Cambridge Companion to English Restoration Theatre''. Ed. D. Payne Fiske. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
*Howe, Elizabeth. ''The First English Actresses. Women and Drama 1660-1700.'' Cambridge: CUP, 1993.
Korninger, Siegfried. ''The Restoration Period and the Eighteenth Century. 1660 – 1780''. München: Österreichischer Bundesverlag Wien, 1964.
*Nestvold, Ruth. ''The Aphra Behn Page'' 07 May 2009 [http://www.lit-arts.net/Behn/chron-ab.htm]
*"Behn, Aphra." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 23 Apr. 2009
[http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-9014136]

Civil War

2009-07-19T16:02:18Z

Daniel:

[[File:Civil war reeanactment.JPG|thumb|400px]]
The '''English Civil War''' or the '''Wars of the Three Kingdoms''' (also called '''English Revolution''' or '''Great Rebellion''') was a series of three connected civil wars, covering roughly the decade from 1642-1651. The two warring parties were [[Royalists]] (supporting King [[Charles I]], and later his son [[Charles II]]) and [[Parliamentarians]] (fighting for a greater independence of [[parliament]] from the king, later for the abolition of the monarchy). The Civil War led to the execution of Charles I, the exile of Charles II and the foundation of the [[Commonwealth]].

==Background to the Civil War==

===Context===
The early 17th century saw great social changes. For the first time, a literate lower middle class appeared, but also rich property owners, professionals and merchants became increasingly influential on an economic level, though politically the aristocracy and the King still concentrated more or less all power in their hands. However, King [[Charles I]] was widely seen as untrustworthy, stubborn and bad at communicating his ideas; his insecurities, paired with a strong understanding of Kingship ([[Divine Right of Kings]]) led him to the kind of arrogance ("Kings are not bound to give an account of their actions but to God alone".) that made his subjects see him as a potential tyrant.

Moreover, the kingdom was far from homogeneous. While, since 1603, [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] were ruled in personal union, the different countries showed deep religious divisions and very distinct cultures and institutions. Whereas his father, King [[James I]], had a softer approach to merging his dominions, Charles I, in the eye of Barry Coward, hastened the process of union between England and Scotland.

The Religious differences were especially important. While Ireland was mainly [[Catholic]], England's and Scotland's churches had undergone the reformation in very different ways. This and a number of [[puritan sects]], for whom the [[Church of England|Anglican church]] was still too Catholic, constituted an explosive religious situation.

On the Continent, the [[Thirty Year's War]] was raging since 1618, though mainly a conflict between the Houses of [[Habsburg]] and [[Bourbon]], pitted [[Protestants]] against Catholics, with the latter seemingly getting the upper hand. This, combined with Charles' and his trusted Archbishop of Canterbury [[William Laud]]'s moves to further embellish the Anglican church ceremonials led many to believe that Catholicism was on its way into Britain again. This fear was only exacerbated by Charles' decision to marry the Catholic [[Henrietta Maria of France]] against the will of parliament.

===Events leading up to the war===

====Scottish Rebellion====
In contrast to his father, who had been King of Scotland before being crowned King of England, Charles had lived in England since the age of 4. He therefore felt only little connection to Scotland and alienated the Scottish nobility by revocating some of their land titles. This, paired with extraordinary taxation, and a continously declining economy in Scotland led to open protest, which Charles answered by further weakening the political role of the nobility.
Under this circumstances, Charles and William Laud moved to anglicanise the [[Scottish church]]. The introduction of a new [[Book of Common Prayer]] led to riots in [[Edinburgh]]. In the [[National Covenant]] the Scots rejected the changes introduced, which, after failed negotiations, led to open rebellion in 1639, then to two wars, which ended in a Scottish victory. Charles was forced to withdraw his changes and pay reparations to Scotland.

====Short Parliament====
In order to pay for the war, Charles had to call Parliament, which - instead of granting him the funds - began to discuss long-lasting problems and misgivings they had with royal policy. Especially [[John Pym]] was recognised as one of the major voices in this. Charles refused to discuss and dissolved parliament on 5 May 1640, not yet three weeks after the election.

Meanwhile, in Scotland, the Scottish Parliament, also decided on sweeping changes. In December 1639, parliament decided that from now on a dissolution would require the consent of the dissoluted parliament. In June 1640 they went even further, calling for more independence from London.

====Long Parliament====
Charles problems were not going away by themselves: Still broke, with the cost of both the war and the reparations mounting, and a partial tax-payers strike on his hands, Charles had to call in another parliament in November 1640. But in the few months since the dissolution of the [[Short Parliament]], grievances had even increased. The main issues during the election were religion, that is the threat of Catholicism, and arbitrary taxation, both decidedly anti-royal topics. Accordingy, only 11% of the elected members of parliament were courtiers, officials or other close supporters of the king (Russell, 1990).

Thus, the issues that had not been resolved, but merely suppressed by the dissolution of parliament resurfaced again. John Pym and his supporters renewed their concerns over the King's policies and actions and with a parliament now decidedly sceptic of the King's behaviour Charles had to relinquish some of his powers in the course of 1641. Parliament had to convene at least once every three years and taxation without consent, as well as arrest without trial were outlawed. The kings administrative powers were weakened and parliament's grew in turn. Importantly, the persecution of dissenters also was stopped. Charles also agreed to an official day of fasting for the entire country on every last Wednesday of the month, something which would later prove an important outlet for radical puritan sermons against the King.

However, with the increasing radicalisation of parliament, the [[Royalists|royalist]] party began to grow again. Many more modest reformers were alienated by the increasing radicalism, both political and religious. As property owners they were beginning to fear that law and order, and therefore the security of their property, would be threatened. Ever-increasing mobs in [[London]], as well as riots and movements of non-rentpayers in the country, made them - though grudgingly - side with the King once again. While in May 1641 a mere 59 of 538 members voted against curtailing the kings powers, in June 1642 the royalist faction had grown to 236 members.

Many parliamentarians suspected the King, fearing for his power, to plan a military coup, especially after the unsuccessful attemt to arrest five leading opposition MPs (John Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, Sir Arthur Haselrig and William Strode) on 4 January 1642. This in turn further radicalised parliament, now demanding control over the armed forces and the right to appoint government ministers. In March 1642 parliament decreed that its own Ordinances were valid by themselves, and did not require royal assent.

==First Civil War (1642-1646)==
[[File:English civil war map 1642 to 1645.JPG|thumb|Areas controlled by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green) in the First Civil War (click on map for bigger picture)]]
Interestingly, though primarily a political conflict, the sides also were divided on religious grounds. According to figures from Russell, about 90% of the catholics sided with the royalists, while over 75% of the puritans became supporters of parliament. And even though their power was threatened as well well over a quarter of the nobility sided with parliaments.

Parliament, now essentially independent of the King, split: Over 200 members left London for [[York]], to where the King had retreated. With now only the anti-royalists present, a compromise was becoming ever more impossible. In the Summer of 1642 parliament set up a volunteer army to protect its new-won powers. The King also gathered his troops and on 23 October 1642 the First Civil War commenced with the [[Battle of Edgehill]]. While the war initially favoured the royalist, in autumn 1643 in the battles of Newbury and Winceby, the parliamentary forces got the upper hand. When in 1645 parliament reorganised its forces into the [[New Model Army]], the war was already decided. The Battles of Naseby and Langport then effectively destroyed Charles' armies.

==Second Civil War (1648-1649)==
The second Civil War was more a series of royalist uprisings than a concerted war effort with a unifying strategy. Disbanded Royalist troops reformed, and in some cases unpaid Parliamentary troops defected to the Royalist side, but none of these proved much problems for parliamentary forces, who in all cases decidedly quelled the rebellions.

Both the leaders of the New Model Army and parliament tried to negotiate with King Charles I on ways to rule the country after the end of the war. However, after several failed attempts, many Army leaders were openly discussing how to establish a [[Commonwealth|Republic]] culminating in a document called the [[Heads of Proposals]]. The [[Levellers]] manifesto [[Agreement of the People]] was one of the alternative proposals. In [[Pride's Purge]], an army led by [[Thomas Pride]] seized control over parliament, and excluded all members who did not agree with the Army leaders. The much smaller parliament became known as [[Rump Parliament]].

But the most important part of the Second Civil War was its aftermath. A large number of royalist prisoners were beheaded. The most prominent was, of course, on 30 January 1649, [[Charles I]] himself, having been tried for being a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". Now without a king and ruled by parliament England had ceased to be a monarchy and became the [[Commonwealth of England]].

==Third Civil War (1649-1651)==
[[File:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|Andrew Carrick Gow "Cromwell at Dunbar"]]
Ireland had, since the Rebellion of 1641 mainly been self-ruled, as the King and then later Parliament, simply had more important issues to consider than to reconquer the neighbouring Island. However, with the final defeat of the royalists in the Second Civil War, [[Oliver Cromwell]] now led a campaign of the Parliamentary forces to reestablish English rule over Ireland. In a series of battles in 1649 and early 1650 he defeated the Irish forces. While a blow to Ireland, the consequent Acts of Parliament, especially the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and Act of Settlement 1662 were to become historically much more decisive.

In Scotland, [[Charles Tudor]], the son of the beheaded Charles I who had struck a deal with the Scottish Covenanters, was declared King of Scotland. This was seen as a provocation by parliament, and in July 1650 Cromwell left Ireland to fight Charles in Scotland. The [[Siege of Edinburgh]] was unsuccessful and the parlamentarians had to retreat to Dunbar, where they defeated the Scots in September. In 1651 the New Model Army occupied most of Southern Scotland, but Charles, with another army moved into Northern England, where he gathered some new royalist support. However, after the decisive victory in the Second Civil War, just three years earlier, the number of royalists were much smaller than Charles had expected, so at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on the 3 September 1651, the Cromwellian Armies finally defeated the Royalists. Charles II managed to flee to France.

==References==
* Russell, Conrad. ''The Causes of the English Civil War.'' Oxford: OUP, 1990.
* Stone, Lawrence. ''The Causes of the English Revolution 1529-1642.'' London: Routledge, 1994.
* Ashton, Robert. ''The English Civil War.'' London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1978.
* Carpenter, Stanled (ed). ''The English Civil War.'' Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007.
* Carlton, Charles. ''The Experience of the British Civil Wars.'' London: Routledge, 1992.
* Coward, Barry. ''A companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

===Weblinks===
* [http://english-civil-war-society.org.uk/ English Civil War Society]
* [http://www.theteacher99.btinternet.co.uk/ecivil/index.htm Civil War Timeline]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War Wikipedia article "English Civil War"]

Civil War

2009-07-19T16:01:55Z

Daniel:

[[File:Civil war reeanactment.JPG|thumb]]
The '''English Civil War''' or the '''Wars of the Three Kingdoms''' (also called '''English Revolution''' or '''Great Rebellion''') was a series of three connected civil wars, covering roughly the decade from 1642-1651. The two warring parties were [[Royalists]] (supporting King [[Charles I]], and later his son [[Charles II]]) and [[Parliamentarians]] (fighting for a greater independence of [[parliament]] from the king, later for the abolition of the monarchy). The Civil War led to the execution of Charles I, the exile of Charles II and the foundation of the [[Commonwealth]].

==Background to the Civil War==

===Context===
The early 17th century saw great social changes. For the first time, a literate lower middle class appeared, but also rich property owners, professionals and merchants became increasingly influential on an economic level, though politically the aristocracy and the King still concentrated more or less all power in their hands. However, King [[Charles I]] was widely seen as untrustworthy, stubborn and bad at communicating his ideas; his insecurities, paired with a strong understanding of Kingship ([[Divine Right of Kings]]) led him to the kind of arrogance ("Kings are not bound to give an account of their actions but to God alone".) that made his subjects see him as a potential tyrant.

Moreover, the kingdom was far from homogeneous. While, since 1603, [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] were ruled in personal union, the different countries showed deep religious divisions and very distinct cultures and institutions. Whereas his father, King [[James I]], had a softer approach to merging his dominions, Charles I, in the eye of Barry Coward, hastened the process of union between England and Scotland.

The Religious differences were especially important. While Ireland was mainly [[Catholic]], England's and Scotland's churches had undergone the reformation in very different ways. This and a number of [[puritan sects]], for whom the [[Church of England|Anglican church]] was still too Catholic, constituted an explosive religious situation.

On the Continent, the [[Thirty Year's War]] was raging since 1618, though mainly a conflict between the Houses of [[Habsburg]] and [[Bourbon]], pitted [[Protestants]] against Catholics, with the latter seemingly getting the upper hand. This, combined with Charles' and his trusted Archbishop of Canterbury [[William Laud]]'s moves to further embellish the Anglican church ceremonials led many to believe that Catholicism was on its way into Britain again. This fear was only exacerbated by Charles' decision to marry the Catholic [[Henrietta Maria of France]] against the will of parliament.

===Events leading up to the war===

====Scottish Rebellion====
In contrast to his father, who had been King of Scotland before being crowned King of England, Charles had lived in England since the age of 4. He therefore felt only little connection to Scotland and alienated the Scottish nobility by revocating some of their land titles. This, paired with extraordinary taxation, and a continously declining economy in Scotland led to open protest, which Charles answered by further weakening the political role of the nobility.
Under this circumstances, Charles and William Laud moved to anglicanise the [[Scottish church]]. The introduction of a new [[Book of Common Prayer]] led to riots in [[Edinburgh]]. In the [[National Covenant]] the Scots rejected the changes introduced, which, after failed negotiations, led to open rebellion in 1639, then to two wars, which ended in a Scottish victory. Charles was forced to withdraw his changes and pay reparations to Scotland.

====Short Parliament====
In order to pay for the war, Charles had to call Parliament, which - instead of granting him the funds - began to discuss long-lasting problems and misgivings they had with royal policy. Especially [[John Pym]] was recognised as one of the major voices in this. Charles refused to discuss and dissolved parliament on 5 May 1640, not yet three weeks after the election.

Meanwhile, in Scotland, the Scottish Parliament, also decided on sweeping changes. In December 1639, parliament decided that from now on a dissolution would require the consent of the dissoluted parliament. In June 1640 they went even further, calling for more independence from London.

====Long Parliament====
Charles problems were not going away by themselves: Still broke, with the cost of both the war and the reparations mounting, and a partial tax-payers strike on his hands, Charles had to call in another parliament in November 1640. But in the few months since the dissolution of the [[Short Parliament]], grievances had even increased. The main issues during the election were religion, that is the threat of Catholicism, and arbitrary taxation, both decidedly anti-royal topics. Accordingy, only 11% of the elected members of parliament were courtiers, officials or other close supporters of the king (Russell, 1990).

Thus, the issues that had not been resolved, but merely suppressed by the dissolution of parliament resurfaced again. John Pym and his supporters renewed their concerns over the King's policies and actions and with a parliament now decidedly sceptic of the King's behaviour Charles had to relinquish some of his powers in the course of 1641. Parliament had to convene at least once every three years and taxation without consent, as well as arrest without trial were outlawed. The kings administrative powers were weakened and parliament's grew in turn. Importantly, the persecution of dissenters also was stopped. Charles also agreed to an official day of fasting for the entire country on every last Wednesday of the month, something which would later prove an important outlet for radical puritan sermons against the King.

However, with the increasing radicalisation of parliament, the [[Royalists|royalist]] party began to grow again. Many more modest reformers were alienated by the increasing radicalism, both political and religious. As property owners they were beginning to fear that law and order, and therefore the security of their property, would be threatened. Ever-increasing mobs in [[London]], as well as riots and movements of non-rentpayers in the country, made them - though grudgingly - side with the King once again. While in May 1641 a mere 59 of 538 members voted against curtailing the kings powers, in June 1642 the royalist faction had grown to 236 members.

Many parliamentarians suspected the King, fearing for his power, to plan a military coup, especially after the unsuccessful attemt to arrest five leading opposition MPs (John Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, Sir Arthur Haselrig and William Strode) on 4 January 1642. This in turn further radicalised parliament, now demanding control over the armed forces and the right to appoint government ministers. In March 1642 parliament decreed that its own Ordinances were valid by themselves, and did not require royal assent.

==First Civil War (1642-1646)==
[[File:English civil war map 1642 to 1645.JPG|thumb|Areas controlled by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green) in the First Civil War (click on map for bigger picture)]]
Interestingly, though primarily a political conflict, the sides also were divided on religious grounds. According to figures from Russell, about 90% of the catholics sided with the royalists, while over 75% of the puritans became supporters of parliament. And even though their power was threatened as well well over a quarter of the nobility sided with parliaments.

Parliament, now essentially independent of the King, split: Over 200 members left London for [[York]], to where the King had retreated. With now only the anti-royalists present, a compromise was becoming ever more impossible. In the Summer of 1642 parliament set up a volunteer army to protect its new-won powers. The King also gathered his troops and on 23 October 1642 the First Civil War commenced with the [[Battle of Edgehill]]. While the war initially favoured the royalist, in autumn 1643 in the battles of Newbury and Winceby, the parliamentary forces got the upper hand. When in 1645 parliament reorganised its forces into the [[New Model Army]], the war was already decided. The Battles of Naseby and Langport then effectively destroyed Charles' armies.

==Second Civil War (1648-1649)==
The second Civil War was more a series of royalist uprisings than a concerted war effort with a unifying strategy. Disbanded Royalist troops reformed, and in some cases unpaid Parliamentary troops defected to the Royalist side, but none of these proved much problems for parliamentary forces, who in all cases decidedly quelled the rebellions.

Both the leaders of the New Model Army and parliament tried to negotiate with King Charles I on ways to rule the country after the end of the war. However, after several failed attempts, many Army leaders were openly discussing how to establish a [[Commonwealth|Republic]] culminating in a document called the [[Heads of Proposals]]. The [[Levellers]] manifesto [[Agreement of the People]] was one of the alternative proposals. In [[Pride's Purge]], an army led by [[Thomas Pride]] seized control over parliament, and excluded all members who did not agree with the Army leaders. The much smaller parliament became known as [[Rump Parliament]].

But the most important part of the Second Civil War was its aftermath. A large number of royalist prisoners were beheaded. The most prominent was, of course, on 30 January 1649, [[Charles I]] himself, having been tried for being a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". Now without a king and ruled by parliament England had ceased to be a monarchy and became the [[Commonwealth of England]].

==Third Civil War (1649-1651)==
[[File:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|Andrew Carrick Gow "Cromwell at Dunbar"]]
Ireland had, since the Rebellion of 1641 mainly been self-ruled, as the King and then later Parliament, simply had more important issues to consider than to reconquer the neighbouring Island. However, with the final defeat of the royalists in the Second Civil War, [[Oliver Cromwell]] now led a campaign of the Parliamentary forces to reestablish English rule over Ireland. In a series of battles in 1649 and early 1650 he defeated the Irish forces. While a blow to Ireland, the consequent Acts of Parliament, especially the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and Act of Settlement 1662 were to become historically much more decisive.

In Scotland, [[Charles Tudor]], the son of the beheaded Charles I who had struck a deal with the Scottish Covenanters, was declared King of Scotland. This was seen as a provocation by parliament, and in July 1650 Cromwell left Ireland to fight Charles in Scotland. The [[Siege of Edinburgh]] was unsuccessful and the parlamentarians had to retreat to Dunbar, where they defeated the Scots in September. In 1651 the New Model Army occupied most of Southern Scotland, but Charles, with another army moved into Northern England, where he gathered some new royalist support. However, after the decisive victory in the Second Civil War, just three years earlier, the number of royalists were much smaller than Charles had expected, so at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on the 3 September 1651, the Cromwellian Armies finally defeated the Royalists. Charles II managed to flee to France.

==References==
* Russell, Conrad. ''The Causes of the English Civil War.'' Oxford: OUP, 1990.
* Stone, Lawrence. ''The Causes of the English Revolution 1529-1642.'' London: Routledge, 1994.
* Ashton, Robert. ''The English Civil War.'' London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1978.
* Carpenter, Stanled (ed). ''The English Civil War.'' Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007.
* Carlton, Charles. ''The Experience of the British Civil Wars.'' London: Routledge, 1992.
* Coward, Barry. ''A companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

===Weblinks===
* [http://english-civil-war-society.org.uk/ English Civil War Society]
* [http://www.theteacher99.btinternet.co.uk/ecivil/index.htm Civil War Timeline]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War Wikipedia article "English Civil War"]

File:Civil war reeanactment.JPG

2009-07-19T16:01:35Z

Daniel: Public Domain picture from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Civil_war_reeanactment.JPG]

Public Domain picture from [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Civil_war_reeanactment.JPG]

Civil War

2009-07-19T16:00:41Z

Daniel: /* Third Civil War (1649-1651) */

The '''English Civil War''' or the '''Wars of the Three Kingdoms''' (also called '''English Revolution''' or '''Great Rebellion''') was a series of three connected civil wars, covering roughly the decade from 1642-1651. The two warring parties were [[Royalists]] (supporting King [[Charles I]], and later his son [[Charles II]]) and [[Parliamentarians]] (fighting for a greater independence of [[parliament]] from the king, later for the abolition of the monarchy). The Civil War led to the execution of Charles I, the exile of Charles II and the foundation of the [[Commonwealth]].

==Background to the Civil War==

===Context===
The early 17th century saw great social changes. For the first time, a literate lower middle class appeared, but also rich property owners, professionals and merchants became increasingly influential on an economic level, though politically the aristocracy and the King still concentrated more or less all power in their hands. However, King [[Charles I]] was widely seen as untrustworthy, stubborn and bad at communicating his ideas; his insecurities, paired with a strong understanding of Kingship ([[Divine Right of Kings]]) led him to the kind of arrogance ("Kings are not bound to give an account of their actions but to God alone".) that made his subjects see him as a potential tyrant.

Moreover, the kingdom was far from homogeneous. While, since 1603, [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] were ruled in personal union, the different countries showed deep religious divisions and very distinct cultures and institutions. Whereas his father, King [[James I]], had a softer approach to merging his dominions, Charles I, in the eye of Barry Coward, hastened the process of union between England and Scotland.

The Religious differences were especially important. While Ireland was mainly [[Catholic]], England's and Scotland's churches had undergone the reformation in very different ways. This and a number of [[puritan sects]], for whom the [[Church of England|Anglican church]] was still too Catholic, constituted an explosive religious situation.

On the Continent, the [[Thirty Year's War]] was raging since 1618, though mainly a conflict between the Houses of [[Habsburg]] and [[Bourbon]], pitted [[Protestants]] against Catholics, with the latter seemingly getting the upper hand. This, combined with Charles' and his trusted Archbishop of Canterbury [[William Laud]]'s moves to further embellish the Anglican church ceremonials led many to believe that Catholicism was on its way into Britain again. This fear was only exacerbated by Charles' decision to marry the Catholic [[Henrietta Maria of France]] against the will of parliament.

===Events leading up to the war===

====Scottish Rebellion====
In contrast to his father, who had been King of Scotland before being crowned King of England, Charles had lived in England since the age of 4. He therefore felt only little connection to Scotland and alienated the Scottish nobility by revocating some of their land titles. This, paired with extraordinary taxation, and a continously declining economy in Scotland led to open protest, which Charles answered by further weakening the political role of the nobility.
Under this circumstances, Charles and William Laud moved to anglicanise the [[Scottish church]]. The introduction of a new [[Book of Common Prayer]] led to riots in [[Edinburgh]]. In the [[National Covenant]] the Scots rejected the changes introduced, which, after failed negotiations, led to open rebellion in 1639, then to two wars, which ended in a Scottish victory. Charles was forced to withdraw his changes and pay reparations to Scotland.

====Short Parliament====
In order to pay for the war, Charles had to call Parliament, which - instead of granting him the funds - began to discuss long-lasting problems and misgivings they had with royal policy. Especially [[John Pym]] was recognised as one of the major voices in this. Charles refused to discuss and dissolved parliament on 5 May 1640, not yet three weeks after the election.

Meanwhile, in Scotland, the Scottish Parliament, also decided on sweeping changes. In December 1639, parliament decided that from now on a dissolution would require the consent of the dissoluted parliament. In June 1640 they went even further, calling for more independence from London.

====Long Parliament====
Charles problems were not going away by themselves: Still broke, with the cost of both the war and the reparations mounting, and a partial tax-payers strike on his hands, Charles had to call in another parliament in November 1640. But in the few months since the dissolution of the [[Short Parliament]], grievances had even increased. The main issues during the election were religion, that is the threat of Catholicism, and arbitrary taxation, both decidedly anti-royal topics. Accordingy, only 11% of the elected members of parliament were courtiers, officials or other close supporters of the king (Russell, 1990).

Thus, the issues that had not been resolved, but merely suppressed by the dissolution of parliament resurfaced again. John Pym and his supporters renewed their concerns over the King's policies and actions and with a parliament now decidedly sceptic of the King's behaviour Charles had to relinquish some of his powers in the course of 1641. Parliament had to convene at least once every three years and taxation without consent, as well as arrest without trial were outlawed. The kings administrative powers were weakened and parliament's grew in turn. Importantly, the persecution of dissenters also was stopped. Charles also agreed to an official day of fasting for the entire country on every last Wednesday of the month, something which would later prove an important outlet for radical puritan sermons against the King.

However, with the increasing radicalisation of parliament, the [[Royalists|royalist]] party began to grow again. Many more modest reformers were alienated by the increasing radicalism, both political and religious. As property owners they were beginning to fear that law and order, and therefore the security of their property, would be threatened. Ever-increasing mobs in [[London]], as well as riots and movements of non-rentpayers in the country, made them - though grudgingly - side with the King once again. While in May 1641 a mere 59 of 538 members voted against curtailing the kings powers, in June 1642 the royalist faction had grown to 236 members.

Many parliamentarians suspected the King, fearing for his power, to plan a military coup, especially after the unsuccessful attemt to arrest five leading opposition MPs (John Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, Sir Arthur Haselrig and William Strode) on 4 January 1642. This in turn further radicalised parliament, now demanding control over the armed forces and the right to appoint government ministers. In March 1642 parliament decreed that its own Ordinances were valid by themselves, and did not require royal assent.

==First Civil War (1642-1646)==
[[File:English civil war map 1642 to 1645.JPG|thumb|Areas controlled by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green) in the First Civil War (click on map for bigger picture)]]
Interestingly, though primarily a political conflict, the sides also were divided on religious grounds. According to figures from Russell, about 90% of the catholics sided with the royalists, while over 75% of the puritans became supporters of parliament. And even though their power was threatened as well well over a quarter of the nobility sided with parliaments.

Parliament, now essentially independent of the King, split: Over 200 members left London for [[York]], to where the King had retreated. With now only the anti-royalists present, a compromise was becoming ever more impossible. In the Summer of 1642 parliament set up a volunteer army to protect its new-won powers. The King also gathered his troops and on 23 October 1642 the First Civil War commenced with the [[Battle of Edgehill]]. While the war initially favoured the royalist, in autumn 1643 in the battles of Newbury and Winceby, the parliamentary forces got the upper hand. When in 1645 parliament reorganised its forces into the [[New Model Army]], the war was already decided. The Battles of Naseby and Langport then effectively destroyed Charles' armies.

==Second Civil War (1648-1649)==
The second Civil War was more a series of royalist uprisings than a concerted war effort with a unifying strategy. Disbanded Royalist troops reformed, and in some cases unpaid Parliamentary troops defected to the Royalist side, but none of these proved much problems for parliamentary forces, who in all cases decidedly quelled the rebellions.

Both the leaders of the New Model Army and parliament tried to negotiate with King Charles I on ways to rule the country after the end of the war. However, after several failed attempts, many Army leaders were openly discussing how to establish a [[Commonwealth|Republic]] culminating in a document called the [[Heads of Proposals]]. The [[Levellers]] manifesto [[Agreement of the People]] was one of the alternative proposals. In [[Pride's Purge]], an army led by [[Thomas Pride]] seized control over parliament, and excluded all members who did not agree with the Army leaders. The much smaller parliament became known as [[Rump Parliament]].

But the most important part of the Second Civil War was its aftermath. A large number of royalist prisoners were beheaded. The most prominent was, of course, on 30 January 1649, [[Charles I]] himself, having been tried for being a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". Now without a king and ruled by parliament England had ceased to be a monarchy and became the [[Commonwealth of England]].

==Third Civil War (1649-1651)==
[[File:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|Andrew Carrick Gow "Cromwell at Dunbar"]]
Ireland had, since the Rebellion of 1641 mainly been self-ruled, as the King and then later Parliament, simply had more important issues to consider than to reconquer the neighbouring Island. However, with the final defeat of the royalists in the Second Civil War, [[Oliver Cromwell]] now led a campaign of the Parliamentary forces to reestablish English rule over Ireland. In a series of battles in 1649 and early 1650 he defeated the Irish forces. While a blow to Ireland, the consequent Acts of Parliament, especially the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and Act of Settlement 1662 were to become historically much more decisive.

In Scotland, [[Charles Tudor]], the son of the beheaded Charles I who had struck a deal with the Scottish Covenanters, was declared King of Scotland. This was seen as a provocation by parliament, and in July 1650 Cromwell left Ireland to fight Charles in Scotland. The [[Siege of Edinburgh]] was unsuccessful and the parlamentarians had to retreat to Dunbar, where they defeated the Scots in September. In 1651 the New Model Army occupied most of Southern Scotland, but Charles, with another army moved into Northern England, where he gathered some new royalist support. However, after the decisive victory in the Second Civil War, just three years earlier, the number of royalists were much smaller than Charles had expected, so at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on the 3 September 1651, the Cromwellian Armies finally defeated the Royalists. Charles II managed to flee to France.

==References==
* Russell, Conrad. ''The Causes of the English Civil War.'' Oxford: OUP, 1990.
* Stone, Lawrence. ''The Causes of the English Revolution 1529-1642.'' London: Routledge, 1994.
* Ashton, Robert. ''The English Civil War.'' London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1978.
* Carpenter, Stanled (ed). ''The English Civil War.'' Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007.
* Carlton, Charles. ''The Experience of the British Civil Wars.'' London: Routledge, 1992.
* Coward, Barry. ''A companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

===Weblinks===
* [http://english-civil-war-society.org.uk/ English Civil War Society]
* [http://www.theteacher99.btinternet.co.uk/ecivil/index.htm Civil War Timeline]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War Wikipedia article "English Civil War"]

File:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg

2009-07-19T16:00:13Z

Daniel: Cromwell at Dunbar by Andrew Carrick Gow (1848-1920). c1886 oil on canvas Public Domain Picture

Cromwell at Dunbar by Andrew Carrick Gow (1848-1920). c1886 oil on canvas
Public Domain Picture

Civil War

2009-07-19T15:59:34Z

Daniel: /* First Civil War (1642-1646) */

The '''English Civil War''' or the '''Wars of the Three Kingdoms''' (also called '''English Revolution''' or '''Great Rebellion''') was a series of three connected civil wars, covering roughly the decade from 1642-1651. The two warring parties were [[Royalists]] (supporting King [[Charles I]], and later his son [[Charles II]]) and [[Parliamentarians]] (fighting for a greater independence of [[parliament]] from the king, later for the abolition of the monarchy). The Civil War led to the execution of Charles I, the exile of Charles II and the foundation of the [[Commonwealth]].

==Background to the Civil War==

===Context===
The early 17th century saw great social changes. For the first time, a literate lower middle class appeared, but also rich property owners, professionals and merchants became increasingly influential on an economic level, though politically the aristocracy and the King still concentrated more or less all power in their hands. However, King [[Charles I]] was widely seen as untrustworthy, stubborn and bad at communicating his ideas; his insecurities, paired with a strong understanding of Kingship ([[Divine Right of Kings]]) led him to the kind of arrogance ("Kings are not bound to give an account of their actions but to God alone".) that made his subjects see him as a potential tyrant.

Moreover, the kingdom was far from homogeneous. While, since 1603, [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] were ruled in personal union, the different countries showed deep religious divisions and very distinct cultures and institutions. Whereas his father, King [[James I]], had a softer approach to merging his dominions, Charles I, in the eye of Barry Coward, hastened the process of union between England and Scotland.

The Religious differences were especially important. While Ireland was mainly [[Catholic]], England's and Scotland's churches had undergone the reformation in very different ways. This and a number of [[puritan sects]], for whom the [[Church of England|Anglican church]] was still too Catholic, constituted an explosive religious situation.

On the Continent, the [[Thirty Year's War]] was raging since 1618, though mainly a conflict between the Houses of [[Habsburg]] and [[Bourbon]], pitted [[Protestants]] against Catholics, with the latter seemingly getting the upper hand. This, combined with Charles' and his trusted Archbishop of Canterbury [[William Laud]]'s moves to further embellish the Anglican church ceremonials led many to believe that Catholicism was on its way into Britain again. This fear was only exacerbated by Charles' decision to marry the Catholic [[Henrietta Maria of France]] against the will of parliament.

===Events leading up to the war===

====Scottish Rebellion====
In contrast to his father, who had been King of Scotland before being crowned King of England, Charles had lived in England since the age of 4. He therefore felt only little connection to Scotland and alienated the Scottish nobility by revocating some of their land titles. This, paired with extraordinary taxation, and a continously declining economy in Scotland led to open protest, which Charles answered by further weakening the political role of the nobility.
Under this circumstances, Charles and William Laud moved to anglicanise the [[Scottish church]]. The introduction of a new [[Book of Common Prayer]] led to riots in [[Edinburgh]]. In the [[National Covenant]] the Scots rejected the changes introduced, which, after failed negotiations, led to open rebellion in 1639, then to two wars, which ended in a Scottish victory. Charles was forced to withdraw his changes and pay reparations to Scotland.

====Short Parliament====
In order to pay for the war, Charles had to call Parliament, which - instead of granting him the funds - began to discuss long-lasting problems and misgivings they had with royal policy. Especially [[John Pym]] was recognised as one of the major voices in this. Charles refused to discuss and dissolved parliament on 5 May 1640, not yet three weeks after the election.

Meanwhile, in Scotland, the Scottish Parliament, also decided on sweeping changes. In December 1639, parliament decided that from now on a dissolution would require the consent of the dissoluted parliament. In June 1640 they went even further, calling for more independence from London.

====Long Parliament====
Charles problems were not going away by themselves: Still broke, with the cost of both the war and the reparations mounting, and a partial tax-payers strike on his hands, Charles had to call in another parliament in November 1640. But in the few months since the dissolution of the [[Short Parliament]], grievances had even increased. The main issues during the election were religion, that is the threat of Catholicism, and arbitrary taxation, both decidedly anti-royal topics. Accordingy, only 11% of the elected members of parliament were courtiers, officials or other close supporters of the king (Russell, 1990).

Thus, the issues that had not been resolved, but merely suppressed by the dissolution of parliament resurfaced again. John Pym and his supporters renewed their concerns over the King's policies and actions and with a parliament now decidedly sceptic of the King's behaviour Charles had to relinquish some of his powers in the course of 1641. Parliament had to convene at least once every three years and taxation without consent, as well as arrest without trial were outlawed. The kings administrative powers were weakened and parliament's grew in turn. Importantly, the persecution of dissenters also was stopped. Charles also agreed to an official day of fasting for the entire country on every last Wednesday of the month, something which would later prove an important outlet for radical puritan sermons against the King.

However, with the increasing radicalisation of parliament, the [[Royalists|royalist]] party began to grow again. Many more modest reformers were alienated by the increasing radicalism, both political and religious. As property owners they were beginning to fear that law and order, and therefore the security of their property, would be threatened. Ever-increasing mobs in [[London]], as well as riots and movements of non-rentpayers in the country, made them - though grudgingly - side with the King once again. While in May 1641 a mere 59 of 538 members voted against curtailing the kings powers, in June 1642 the royalist faction had grown to 236 members.

Many parliamentarians suspected the King, fearing for his power, to plan a military coup, especially after the unsuccessful attemt to arrest five leading opposition MPs (John Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, Sir Arthur Haselrig and William Strode) on 4 January 1642. This in turn further radicalised parliament, now demanding control over the armed forces and the right to appoint government ministers. In March 1642 parliament decreed that its own Ordinances were valid by themselves, and did not require royal assent.

==First Civil War (1642-1646)==
[[File:English civil war map 1642 to 1645.JPG|thumb|Areas controlled by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green) in the First Civil War (click on map for bigger picture)]]
Interestingly, though primarily a political conflict, the sides also were divided on religious grounds. According to figures from Russell, about 90% of the catholics sided with the royalists, while over 75% of the puritans became supporters of parliament. And even though their power was threatened as well well over a quarter of the nobility sided with parliaments.

Parliament, now essentially independent of the King, split: Over 200 members left London for [[York]], to where the King had retreated. With now only the anti-royalists present, a compromise was becoming ever more impossible. In the Summer of 1642 parliament set up a volunteer army to protect its new-won powers. The King also gathered his troops and on 23 October 1642 the First Civil War commenced with the [[Battle of Edgehill]]. While the war initially favoured the royalist, in autumn 1643 in the battles of Newbury and Winceby, the parliamentary forces got the upper hand. When in 1645 parliament reorganised its forces into the [[New Model Army]], the war was already decided. The Battles of Naseby and Langport then effectively destroyed Charles' armies.

==Second Civil War (1648-1649)==
The second Civil War was more a series of royalist uprisings than a concerted war effort with a unifying strategy. Disbanded Royalist troops reformed, and in some cases unpaid Parliamentary troops defected to the Royalist side, but none of these proved much problems for parliamentary forces, who in all cases decidedly quelled the rebellions.

Both the leaders of the New Model Army and parliament tried to negotiate with King Charles I on ways to rule the country after the end of the war. However, after several failed attempts, many Army leaders were openly discussing how to establish a [[Commonwealth|Republic]] culminating in a document called the [[Heads of Proposals]]. The [[Levellers]] manifesto [[Agreement of the People]] was one of the alternative proposals. In [[Pride's Purge]], an army led by [[Thomas Pride]] seized control over parliament, and excluded all members who did not agree with the Army leaders. The much smaller parliament became known as [[Rump Parliament]].

But the most important part of the Second Civil War was its aftermath. A large number of royalist prisoners were beheaded. The most prominent was, of course, on 30 January 1649, [[Charles I]] himself, having been tried for being a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". Now without a king and ruled by parliament England had ceased to be a monarchy and became the [[Commonwealth of England]].

==Third Civil War (1649-1651)==
Ireland had, since the Rebellion of 1641 mainly been self-ruled, as the King and then later Parliament, simply had more important issues to consider than to reconquer the neighbouring Island. However, with the final defeat of the royalists in the Second Civil War, [[Oliver Cromwell]] now led a campaign of the Parliamentary forces to reestablish English rule over Ireland. In a series of battles in 1649 and early 1650 he defeated the Irish forces. While a blow to Ireland, the consequent Acts of Parliament, especially the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and Act of Settlement 1662 were to become historically much more decisive.

In Scotland, [[Charles Tudor]], the son of the beheaded Charles I who had struck a deal with the Scottish Covenanters, was declared King of Scotland. This was seen as a provocation by parliament, and in July 1650 Cromwell left Ireland to fight Charles in Scotland. The [[Siege of Edinburgh]] was unsuccessful and the parlamentarians had to retreat to Dunbar, where they defeated the Scots in September. In 1651 the New Model Army occupied most of Southern Scotland, but Charles, with another army moved into Northern England, where he gathered some new royalist support. However, after the decisive victory in the Second Civil War, just three years earlier, the number of royalists were much smaller than Charles had expected, so at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on the 3 September 1651, the Cromwellian Armies finally defeated the Royalists. Charles II managed to flee to France.

==References==
* Russell, Conrad. ''The Causes of the English Civil War.'' Oxford: OUP, 1990.
* Stone, Lawrence. ''The Causes of the English Revolution 1529-1642.'' London: Routledge, 1994.
* Ashton, Robert. ''The English Civil War.'' London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1978.
* Carpenter, Stanled (ed). ''The English Civil War.'' Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007.
* Carlton, Charles. ''The Experience of the British Civil Wars.'' London: Routledge, 1992.
* Coward, Barry. ''A companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

===Weblinks===
* [http://english-civil-war-society.org.uk/ English Civil War Society]
* [http://www.theteacher99.btinternet.co.uk/ecivil/index.htm Civil War Timeline]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War Wikipedia article "English Civil War"]

File:English civil war map 1642 to 1645.JPG

2009-07-19T15:58:22Z

Daniel:

created by [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Cfitzart], released under Creative Commons-Attribution Share Alike license: [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/]

File:English civil war map 1642 to 1645.JPG

2009-07-19T15:57:01Z

Daniel:

Civil War

2009-07-17T21:31:10Z

Daniel:

The '''English Civil War''' or the '''Wars of the Three Kingdoms''' (also called '''English Revolution''' or '''Great Rebellion''') was a series of three connected civil wars, covering roughly the decade from 1642-1651. The two warring parties were [[Royalists]] (supporting King [[Charles I]], and later his son [[Charles II]]) and [[Parliamentarians]] (fighting for a greater independence of [[parliament]] from the king, later for the abolition of the monarchy). The Civil War led to the execution of Charles I, the exile of Charles II and the foundation of the [[Commonwealth]].

==Background to the Civil War==

===Context===
The early 17th century saw great social changes. For the first time, a literate lower middle class appeared, but also rich property owners, professionals and merchants became increasingly influential on an economic level, though politically the aristocracy and the King still concentrated more or less all power in their hands. However, King [[Charles I]] was widely seen as untrustworthy, stubborn and bad at communicating his ideas; his insecurities, paired with a strong understanding of Kingship ([[Divine Right of Kings]]) led him to the kind of arrogance ("Kings are not bound to give an account of their actions but to God alone".) that made his subjects see him as a potential tyrant.

Moreover, the kingdom was far from homogeneous. While, since 1603, [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] were ruled in personal union, the different countries showed deep religious divisions and very distinct cultures and institutions. Whereas his father, King [[James I]], had a softer approach to merging his dominions, Charles I, in the eye of Barry Coward, hastened the process of union between England and Scotland.

The Religious differences were especially important. While Ireland was mainly [[Catholic]], England's and Scotland's churches had undergone the reformation in very different ways. This and a number of [[puritan sects]], for whom the [[Church of England|Anglican church]] was still too Catholic, constituted an explosive religious situation.

On the Continent, the [[Thirty Year's War]] was raging since 1618, though mainly a conflict between the Houses of [[Habsburg]] and [[Bourbon]], pitted [[Protestants]] against Catholics, with the latter seemingly getting the upper hand. This, combined with Charles' and his trusted Archbishop of Canterbury [[William Laud]]'s moves to further embellish the Anglican church ceremonials led many to believe that Catholicism was on its way into Britain again. This fear was only exacerbated by Charles' decision to marry the Catholic [[Henrietta Maria of France]] against the will of parliament.

===Events leading up to the war===

====Scottish Rebellion====
In contrast to his father, who had been King of Scotland before being crowned King of England, Charles had lived in England since the age of 4. He therefore felt only little connection to Scotland and alienated the Scottish nobility by revocating some of their land titles. This, paired with extraordinary taxation, and a continously declining economy in Scotland led to open protest, which Charles answered by further weakening the political role of the nobility.
Under this circumstances, Charles and William Laud moved to anglicanise the [[Scottish church]]. The introduction of a new [[Book of Common Prayer]] led to riots in [[Edinburgh]]. In the [[National Covenant]] the Scots rejected the changes introduced, which, after failed negotiations, led to open rebellion in 1639, then to two wars, which ended in a Scottish victory. Charles was forced to withdraw his changes and pay reparations to Scotland.

====Short Parliament====
In order to pay for the war, Charles had to call Parliament, which - instead of granting him the funds - began to discuss long-lasting problems and misgivings they had with royal policy. Especially [[John Pym]] was recognised as one of the major voices in this. Charles refused to discuss and dissolved parliament on 5 May 1640, not yet three weeks after the election.

Meanwhile, in Scotland, the Scottish Parliament, also decided on sweeping changes. In December 1639, parliament decided that from now on a dissolution would require the consent of the dissoluted parliament. In June 1640 they went even further, calling for more independence from London.

====Long Parliament====
Charles problems were not going away by themselves: Still broke, with the cost of both the war and the reparations mounting, and a partial tax-payers strike on his hands, Charles had to call in another parliament in November 1640. But in the few months since the dissolution of the [[Short Parliament]], grievances had even increased. The main issues during the election were religion, that is the threat of Catholicism, and arbitrary taxation, both decidedly anti-royal topics. Accordingy, only 11% of the elected members of parliament were courtiers, officials or other close supporters of the king (Russell, 1990).

Thus, the issues that had not been resolved, but merely suppressed by the dissolution of parliament resurfaced again. John Pym and his supporters renewed their concerns over the King's policies and actions and with a parliament now decidedly sceptic of the King's behaviour Charles had to relinquish some of his powers in the course of 1641. Parliament had to convene at least once every three years and taxation without consent, as well as arrest without trial were outlawed. The kings administrative powers were weakened and parliament's grew in turn. Importantly, the persecution of dissenters also was stopped. Charles also agreed to an official day of fasting for the entire country on every last Wednesday of the month, something which would later prove an important outlet for radical puritan sermons against the King.

However, with the increasing radicalisation of parliament, the [[Royalists|royalist]] party began to grow again. Many more modest reformers were alienated by the increasing radicalism, both political and religious. As property owners they were beginning to fear that law and order, and therefore the security of their property, would be threatened. Ever-increasing mobs in [[London]], as well as riots and movements of non-rentpayers in the country, made them - though grudgingly - side with the King once again. While in May 1641 a mere 59 of 538 members voted against curtailing the kings powers, in June 1642 the royalist faction had grown to 236 members.

Many parliamentarians suspected the King, fearing for his power, to plan a military coup, especially after the unsuccessful attemt to arrest five leading opposition MPs (John Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, Sir Arthur Haselrig and William Strode) on 4 January 1642. This in turn further radicalised parliament, now demanding control over the armed forces and the right to appoint government ministers. In March 1642 parliament decreed that its own Ordinances were valid by themselves, and did not require royal assent.

==First Civil War (1642-1646)==
Interestingly, though primarily a political conflict, the sides also were divided on religious grounds. According to figures from Russell, about 90% of the catholics sided with the royalists, while over 75% of the puritans became supporters of parliament. And even though their power was threatened as well well over a quarter of the nobility sided with parliaments.

Parliament, now essentially independent of the King, split: Over 200 members left London for [[York]], to where the King had retreated. With now only the anti-royalists present, a compromise was becoming ever more impossible. In the Summer of 1642 parliament set up a volunteer army to protect its new-won powers. The King also gathered his troops and on 23 October 1642 the First Civil War commenced with the [[Battle of Edgehill]]. While the war initially favoured the royalist, in autumn 1643 in the battles of Newbury and Winceby, the parliamentary forces got the upper hand. When in 1645 parliament reorganised its forces into the [[New Model Army]], the war was already decided. The Battles of Naseby and Langport then effectively destroyed Charles' armies.

==Second Civil War (1648-1649)==
The second Civil War was more a series of royalist uprisings than a concerted war effort with a unifying strategy. Disbanded Royalist troops reformed, and in some cases unpaid Parliamentary troops defected to the Royalist side, but none of these proved much problems for parliamentary forces, who in all cases decidedly quelled the rebellions.

Both the leaders of the New Model Army and parliament tried to negotiate with King Charles I on ways to rule the country after the end of the war. However, after several failed attempts, many Army leaders were openly discussing how to establish a [[Commonwealth|Republic]] culminating in a document called the [[Heads of Proposals]]. The [[Levellers]] manifesto [[Agreement of the People]] was one of the alternative proposals. In [[Pride's Purge]], an army led by [[Thomas Pride]] seized control over parliament, and excluded all members who did not agree with the Army leaders. The much smaller parliament became known as [[Rump Parliament]].

But the most important part of the Second Civil War was its aftermath. A large number of royalist prisoners were beheaded. The most prominent was, of course, on 30 January 1649, [[Charles I]] himself, having been tried for being a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". Now without a king and ruled by parliament England had ceased to be a monarchy and became the [[Commonwealth of England]].

==Third Civil War (1649-1651)==
Ireland had, since the Rebellion of 1641 mainly been self-ruled, as the King and then later Parliament, simply had more important issues to consider than to reconquer the neighbouring Island. However, with the final defeat of the royalists in the Second Civil War, [[Oliver Cromwell]] now led a campaign of the Parliamentary forces to reestablish English rule over Ireland. In a series of battles in 1649 and early 1650 he defeated the Irish forces. While a blow to Ireland, the consequent Acts of Parliament, especially the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and Act of Settlement 1662 were to become historically much more decisive.

In Scotland, [[Charles Tudor]], the son of the beheaded Charles I who had struck a deal with the Scottish Covenanters, was declared King of Scotland. This was seen as a provocation by parliament, and in July 1650 Cromwell left Ireland to fight Charles in Scotland. The [[Siege of Edinburgh]] was unsuccessful and the parlamentarians had to retreat to Dunbar, where they defeated the Scots in September. In 1651 the New Model Army occupied most of Southern Scotland, but Charles, with another army moved into Northern England, where he gathered some new royalist support. However, after the decisive victory in the Second Civil War, just three years earlier, the number of royalists were much smaller than Charles had expected, so at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on the 3 September 1651, the Cromwellian Armies finally defeated the Royalists. Charles II managed to flee to France.

==References==
* Russell, Conrad. ''The Causes of the English Civil War.'' Oxford: OUP, 1990.
* Stone, Lawrence. ''The Causes of the English Revolution 1529-1642.'' London: Routledge, 1994.
* Ashton, Robert. ''The English Civil War.'' London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1978.
* Carpenter, Stanled (ed). ''The English Civil War.'' Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007.
* Carlton, Charles. ''The Experience of the British Civil Wars.'' London: Routledge, 1992.
* Coward, Barry. ''A companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

===Weblinks===
* [http://english-civil-war-society.org.uk/ English Civil War Society]
* [http://www.theteacher99.btinternet.co.uk/ecivil/index.htm Civil War Timeline]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War Wikipedia article "English Civil War"]

Levellers

2009-07-17T21:26:00Z

Daniel:

The '''Levellers''' were a faction of left-wing democrats during the [[English Civil Wars]]. They demanded greater equality, an extension of suffrage and religious freedom. Their symbol was a sea-green ribbon. The Levellers were a force in English politics only from 1646 to 1949.

==Origins==
''For the context in which the Levellers appeared see [[Proto-Socialism]]''<br />
[[John Lilburne]] was one of the earliest Levellers. He distributed pamphlets in which he accused members of parliament of living comfortable lives while soldiers and other ordinary citizens lived under the harsh conditions of the [[Civil War]]. Another of the early Levellers was [[Richard Overton]]. In 1646, while in prison he wrote ''An arrow against all tyrantss..''.

==New Model Army==
Also, common soldiers in the [[New Model Army]] elected so-called "Agitators" to represent them. A group of these drew the ''Agreement of the People''. This document outlined a future direction of the country which directly contradicted the ''Heads of Proposal'' previously agreed upon by the Army leadership. Most of the differences were on question of who would be allowed to vote, and under which terms parliament could rule.

===Suppression===
The ideas of the Levellers soon got strong support among the common soldiers of the New Model Army. However, fearing for their privileged positions, Army commanders decided to declare the ''Heads of Proposal'' as the official army proposal for the future of the country. In [[Pride's Purge]] in December 1648, an army led by Thomas Pride seized control over parliament, and excluded all members who did not agree with the Army leaders. The much smaller parliament became known as [[Rump Parliament]].

During the course of 1648 and 1649 again and again support for the Levellers reignited in different Army regiments, in some cases even going so far as to refuse to serve until the Levellers demands were fulfilled. Senior officers in all cases either dismissed those soldiers from the Army, or even declared a mutiny and had other regiments imprison them.

Seen as a threat to the power of the upper classes and therefore the unity of the country, [[John Lilburne]], William Walwyn, Thomas Prince, and [[Richard Overton]], the major leaders of the Levellers, were imprisoned in May 1649. This and the putdown of the [[Banbury mutiny]], where 400 soldiers demanding higher pay and the realisation of Leveller ideas were attacked, imprisoned and executed by [[Oliver Cromwell]]s forces, marked the end of the Levellers as a force in English politics.

==See also==
* [[Diggers]]

==Primary Sources==
* Overton, Richard. ''An arrow against all tyrants and tyranny, shot from the prison of Newgate into the prerogative bowels of the arbitrary House of Lords and all other usurpers and tyrants whatsoever. Wherein the original, rise, extent, and end of magisterial power, the natural and national rights, freedoms and properties of mankind are discovered and undeniably maintained; the late oppressions and encroachments of the Lords over the commons legally (by the fundamental laws and statutes of this realm, as also by a memorable extract out of the records of the Tower of London) condemned; the late Presbyterian ordinance (invented and contrived by the diviners, and by the motion of Mr Bacon and Mr Tate read in the House of Commons) examined, refuted, and exploded, as most inhumane, tyrannical and barbarous.'' London: Private printing, 1646. [http://www.constitution.org/lev/eng_lev_05.htm Online Version]
* Anonymous. ''To the right honovrable the Commons of England in Parliament assembled. The humble Petition of Thousands wel-affected persons inhabiting the City of London, Westminster, the Borough of Southwark Hamblets, and places adjacent.'' London: Private printing, 1648. [http://www.bilderberg.org/land/petition.htm Online Version]
* Anonymous. ''An Agreement of the People of England, and the places therewith incorporated, for a secure and present peace, upon grounds of common right, freedom and safety.'' London: Private printing, 1649. [http://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur081.htm Online Version]
* Anonymous. ''An Agreement of the People for a firm and present peace upon grounds of common right.'' Unknown: Private printin, 1647. [http://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur074.htm Online Version]

==References==
* Hill, Christopher. ''The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution.'' London: Temple Smith, 1972.
* Sharp, Andrew (ed). ''The English Levellers.'' Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
* Mendle, Michael (ed). ''The Putney Debates of 1647: The Army, the Levellers, and the English State.'' Cambridge: CUP, 2001
* Lingard, John. "The Commonwealth" ''A history of England from the first invasion of the Romans to the accession of William & Mary in 1688. By John Lingard.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 2005.
* Coward, Barry. ''A companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

===Weblinks===
* [http://www.constitution.org/lev/levellers.htm Online Version of Sharp, Andrew (ed.). The English Levellers. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.]
* [http://www.authorama.com/history-of-england-4.html Online Version of Lingard, John. A history of England from the first invasion of the Romans to the accession of William & Mary in 1688. By John Lingard. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 2005.]
* [http://www.diggers.org/diggers/levellers.htm A Chronology of the Leveller Movement]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levellers Wikipedia article "Levellers"]

Levellers

2009-07-17T21:24:48Z

Daniel:

The '''Levellers''' were a faction of left-wing democrats during the [[English Civil Wars]]. They demanded greater equality, an extension of suffrage and religious freedom. Their symbol was a sea-green ribbon. The Levellers were a force in English politics only from 1646 to 1949.

==Origins==
''For the context in which the Levellers appeared see [[Proto-Socialism]]''<br />
[[John Lilburne]] was one of the earliest Levellers. He distributed pamphlets in which he accused members of parliament of living comfortable lives while soldiers and other ordinary citizens lived under the harsh conditions of the [[Civil War]]. In 1646, while in prison he wrote ''An arrow against all tyrantss..''.

==New Model Army==
Also, common soldiers in the [[New Model Army]] elected so-called "Agitators" to represent them. A group of these drew the ''Agreement of the People''. This document outlined a future direction of the country which directly contradicted the ''Heads of Proposal'' previously agreed upon by the Army leadership. Most of the differences were on question of who would be allowed to vote, and under which terms parliament could rule.

===Suppression===
The ideas of the Levellers soon got strong support among the common soldiers of the New Model Army. However, fearing for their privileged positions, Army commanders decided to declare the ''Heads of Proposal'' as the official army proposal for the future of the country. In [[Pride's Purge]] in December 1648, an army led by Thomas Pride seized control over parliament, and excluded all members who did not agree with the Army leaders. The much smaller parliament became known as [[Rump Parliament]].

During the course of 1648 and 1649 again and again support for the Levellers reignited in different Army regiments, in some cases even going so far as to refuse to serve until the Levellers demands were fulfilled. Senior officers in all cases either dismissed those soldiers from the Army, or even declared a mutiny and had other regiments imprison them.

Seen as a threat to the power of the upper classes and therefore the unity of the country, [[John Lilburne]], William Walwyn, Thomas Prince, and [[Richard Overton]], the major leaders of the Levellers, were imprisoned in May 1649. This and the putdown of the [[Banbury mutiny]], where 400 soldiers demanding higher pay and the realisation of Leveller ideas were attacked, imprisoned and executed by [[Oliver Cromwell]]s forces, marked the end of the Levellers as a force in English politics.

==See also==
* [[Diggers]]

==Primary Sources==
* Overton, Richard. ''An arrow against all tyrants and tyranny, shot from the prison of Newgate into the prerogative bowels of the arbitrary House of Lords and all other usurpers and tyrants whatsoever. Wherein the original, rise, extent, and end of magisterial power, the natural and national rights, freedoms and properties of mankind are discovered and undeniably maintained; the late oppressions and encroachments of the Lords over the commons legally (by the fundamental laws and statutes of this realm, as also by a memorable extract out of the records of the Tower of London) condemned; the late Presbyterian ordinance (invented and contrived by the diviners, and by the motion of Mr Bacon and Mr Tate read in the House of Commons) examined, refuted, and exploded, as most inhumane, tyrannical and barbarous.'' London: Private printing, 1646. [http://www.constitution.org/lev/eng_lev_05.htm Online Version]
* Anonymous. ''To the right honovrable the Commons of England in Parliament assembled. The humble Petition of Thousands wel-affected persons inhabiting the City of London, Westminster, the Borough of Southwark Hamblets, and places adjacent.'' London: Private printing, 1648. [http://www.bilderberg.org/land/petition.htm Online Version]
* Anonymous. ''An Agreement of the People of England, and the places therewith incorporated, for a secure and present peace, upon grounds of common right, freedom and safety.'' London: Private printing, 1649. [http://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur081.htm Online Version]
* Anonymous. ''An Agreement of the People for a firm and present peace upon grounds of common right.'' Unknown: Private printin, 1647. [http://www.constitution.org/eng/conpur074.htm Online Version]

==References==
* Hill, Christopher. ''The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution.'' London: Temple Smith, 1972.
* Sharp, Andrew (ed). ''The English Levellers.'' Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
* Mendle, Michael (ed). ''The Putney Debates of 1647: The Army, the Levellers, and the English State.'' Cambridge: CUP, 2001
* Lingard, John. "The Commonwealth" ''A history of England from the first invasion of the Romans to the accession of William & Mary in 1688. By John Lingard.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 2005.
* Coward, Barry. ''A companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

===Weblinks===
* [http://www.constitution.org/lev/levellers.htm Online Version of Sharp, Andrew (ed.). The English Levellers. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.]
* [http://www.authorama.com/history-of-england-4.html Online Version of Lingard, John. A history of England from the first invasion of the Romans to the accession of William & Mary in 1688. By John Lingard. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 2005.]
* [http://www.diggers.org/diggers/levellers.htm A Chronology of the Leveller Movement]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levellers Wikipedia article "Levellers"]

Proto-Socialism

2009-07-17T21:23:29Z

Daniel:

'''Proto-Socialism''' is a label for a number of left-wing ideas concerning the contemporary and ideal future state of society. In [[Civil War]] England a number of groups became known, which could be grouped under this label. Some of them derived their radical political ideas from [[religion]], some of them were completely a-religious. The best known of these were the [[Levellers]] and the [[Diggers]].

==Religion==
Religion in the 1600s still had an all-encompassing role, it formed the set of values which sanctioned more or less all social practices. This was especially true in rural areas of Britain. The call for [[religious freedom]], which followed the 16th Century [[Reformation]] and Counter-Reformation movements, therefore was implicitly also a questioning of the existing social order, of received hierarchies and ideologies beyond the religious realm.

==Class conflict==
The [[Civil War]] being fought against a King deemed tyrannical and milking the country through arbitrary taxation such as [[Ship's money]] further complicated things. While the wealthy elite, be they Aristocrats, Land-Owners or Merchants saw this as their major problem, the lower classes, especially in rural areas more often felt much more exploited by their local noblemen or landlord overcharging them or enclosing the common land. The war aim of the parliamentary army to establish a "true religion, the laws, liberty and peace of the Kingdome" (Petegorsky, 1995. 60) thus had a very different meaning to common people then to the Armies commanders, mostly recruited from the nobility. In fact, the meaning of "liberty" for a landowner was diametrically opposed to that of a peasant working the land.

==Economics==
The late 1640s then featured a series of devastating harvests, which lead to constantly rising food prices. Additionally the [[Long Parliament]] introduced the excise ordinant, essentially a tax on common goods, which disproportionately burdened low-income families. The Civil War had also led to a breakdown of the economy, and what little was left was often taken by looting armies. Furthermore landowners in many cases used the breakdown of authority to their advantage and began enclosing more common land than would have been possible before.

==The Army==
The parliamentary soldiers were also disaffected. While in the beginning of the civil war thousands of volunteers joined the armies, by 1643 voluntary service became adaequate. This, and an increase in cases of desertion, led to [[impressment]], that is forcing people to become soldiers. In addition, the rank and file became more and more aware of their difference from their commanders, which were mostly noblemen or otherwise of high status. This and the constantly late payments of soldiers led both to mutiny and the easy spreading of proto-socialist ideas in the military.

==Origins of the Levellers==
In one of the first petitions to parliament ''A remonstrance of many thousand citizens...'', [[Richard Overton]] wrote in 1646: "Ye are rich and abound in goods and have need of nothing; but the afflictions of the poor — your hunger-starved brethren — ye have no compassion of." This, in condensed form, stated the common belief that the upper classes fought this war for their self-interest and saw the common men as mere tools in their schemes, not as fellow citizens worthy of respect and a loaf of bread. It was in this context that the [[Levellers]] and later the [[Diggers]] appeared.

==References==
* Hill, Christopher. ''The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution.'' London: Temple Smith, 1972.
* Mendle, Michael (ed). ''The Putney Debates of 1647: The Army, the Levellers, and the English State.'' Cambridge: CUP, 2001
* Lingard, John. "The Commonwealth" ''A history of England from the first invasion of the Romans to the accession of William & Mary in 1688. By John Lingard.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 2005.
* Coward, Barry. ''A companion to Stuart Britain.'' Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.

John Milton

2009-07-17T21:19:58Z

Daniel:

'''John Milton''', an author and active member of the Cromwellian Government, was born on December 9, 1608. Most of his works and deeds are related to the time of the Commonwealth and the [[Restoration]] of England.

He was educated by a private tutor, Thomas Young, from 1618 to 1620 and went to St. Paul’s School until he matriculated at Christ’s College (Cambridge) in 1625. “Milton’s father recognized and encouraged his son’s talents as an intellectual and poet, assuring him an excellent education destined to prepare him for a career in the church” (Woods vii). Although he did not start such a career his belief would influence the actions and literary productions of his later life. Milton became BA in 1629 and MA in 1632.

Due to the ongoing conflicts between members of the Anglican Church and the [[Puritanism|Puritans]]/Calvinists, Milton went to France, Italy and Geneva. He was influenced by [[Renaissance]] culture and “[t]here he met and charmed the last remnants of the high Renaissance […] He also met Galileo and, in Naples, Giovanni Battista Manso, a patron of the great sixteenth-century Italian poet [[Torquato Tasso]]” (Woods viiif.) He went back to London in 1639.

During he Civil War, pamphleteering became very popular and Milton was one of the most active pamphleteers; he wrote, for example, ''Of Reformation. Touching Church Discipline'' (1641) and ''Of Education'' (1644). He supported the freedom of public expression in ''Areopagitica. Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing'' (1644). Milton wanted England to be “a Christian, Protestant recreation of the Athenian and Roman states [based on] worship, labour, sports and intellect” (Bradford 28). For him, education was a possibility to repair man’s relationship with God but most of all he wished for a united country with “a collective sense of identity” (ibid.)

In 1642 he married Mary Powell. Milton was 33, his wife only 17. The relationship did not work very well; Mary had a completely different attitude towards life. She was not interested in literature and she did not regard her religion as an intellectual part of her life. She fled back to her parents and the couple “would not meet again until […] the defeat of the King” (Bradford 31). During these times, Milton did also write another pamphlet called ''The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce'' (1643). For Milton, marriage was not only a sexual coming together but also a meeting of minds and sharing of the same thoughts and beliefs. For him, love between man and woman equals God’s love for man and if it is absent, it is a form of atheism.

Mary and John Milton reconciled in 1645/1646 and had 4 children together: Anne (1646), Mary (1648), John (1651) and Deborah (1652). Two days after the birth of their last daughter, his wife Mary died. That is the same year in which Milton went blind. In 1656 Milton married for the second time. His new wife, Katherine Woodcock, then 28, died in 1658 in childbed (the new-born daughter died soon afterwards).

“The trial of Charles I drew Milton back into […] political and religious debates” (Bradford 36). ''The tenure of Kings and Magistrates'' (1649) was a justification for regicide. His ''Eikonoklastes'' (1649) is an iconoclastic reply to [[Eikon Basilike|''Eikon Basilike'']] (1649), the (self-)stylisation of [[Charles I]] as royal martyr. Milton became the official spokesman of the Cromwellian Government and in 1649 the Government gave him a house near Westminster and some scribes to continue his political writing. He lost his eyesight in 1652.

After [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s death and [[Charles II]]'s return Milton had to go into hiding. He was imprisoned but soon released again since his brother had connections to the Royalist party and since his friend Andrew Marvell also supported him. In 1663 Milton married again, Elizabeth Minshull, and during the [[Great Fire of London]] (1666) he lost Bread Street, the only property that was left. In 1667 he published [[Paradise Lost|''Paradise Lost'']], in 1671 he wrote ''Paradise Regained''.

Milton died between the 8th and 10th of November in 1674.

== Sources and further reading ==

Bradford, Richard. ''The Complete Critical Guide to John Milton''. London: Routledge, 2001.

Woods, Susanne. "Introduction". ''Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained''. Eds. Christopher Ricks, John Hollander. New York: Signet, 2001.

User:Daniel

2009-07-17T21:19:04Z

Daniel: