British Culture - User contributions [en]

Princess Margaret

2010-05-21T14:24:33Z

Nadine W.: Created page with 'Born 21 August 1930 at Glamis Castle (Scotland), died 9 February 2002 in London. Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, was the second daughter of King George VI, and the y…'

Born 21 August 1930 at Glamis Castle (Scotland), died 9 February 2002 in London.

Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, was the second daughter of King [[George VI]], and the younger sister of Queen [[Elizabeth II]]. At the age of 6, after the abdication of her uncle [[Edward VIII]], she became second in line to the British throne.

In the 1950s, Margaret fell in love with Peter Townsend. Townsend, her father’s equerry, was not only divorced, but also 16 years older than Margaret. Margaret still wanted to marry him but due to public controversy and opposition not only by her family but also by the Church and Government, she had to abandon her plans of marrying Townsend.
On 6 May 1960, Margaret married the society photographer Antony Armstrong-Jones (later Earl of Snowdon and Viscount Linley) in [[Westminster Abbey]]. The couple divorced in May 1978. The Princess and Viscount Linley had two children – a son, Lord David Albert Charles Linley, born on 3 November 1961 and a daughter, Lady Sarah Frances Elizabeth Chatto, born on 1 May 1964.

The Princess was president or patron of more than 80 charity organisations. However, although Margaret carried out these public duties, she was also a regular in the yellow press where she was often criticised for her high society lifestyle.

In her later years Princess Margaret suffered from poor health. As she was a heavy smoker one of her lungs had to be removed in 1985. Her health and mobility were further affected by three strokes in 1998, 2000, and 2001 and by a bathroom accident in 1999 when she scalded her feet.

Sources:

http://www.britroyals.com/windsor.asp?id=princess_margaret

http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/The%20House%20of%20Windsor%20from%201952/HRHPrincessMargaret/Overview.aspx

Kensington Palace

2010-05-21T13:14:22Z

Nadine W.:

Royal Residence acquired by [[William III]] (William of Orange) and [[Mary II]] in 1689.

Kensington Palace, originally a private country house known as Nottingham House, was acquired by William III and his wife Mary II from their Secretary of State, the Earl of Nottingham in 1689 for £20,000. The building was then adapted for royal residence by [[Christopher Wren]] who extended the [[Jacobean]] house and (re)constructed a new entrance and courtyard, the Royal Apartments for the royal couple, the Grand Staircase, a council chamber and the Chapel Royal. A private road was also built from the Palace to Hyde Park Corner. Kensington was initially intended as a private retreat by William and Mary, and the domestic character of the building was underlined by the fact that it was always referred to as Kensington House, and not as Kensington Palace. Kensington principally served as a winter residence.

For the next 70 years, the palace hosted not only the court of William and Mary, but also the courts of [[Anne I]], [[George I]] and [[George II]]. It is also the birthplace of the later [[Victoria|Queen Victoria]]. During the reign of Queen Anne, a number of alterations to the gardens and palace grounds were effected, the most famous of which is the building of the Orangery in 1704 / 05. Under George I, the core of the old Nottingham House was reconstructed (probably by [[Colen Campbell]]). In that period, many decorative paintings were added to the ceilings of the reconstructed Palace, most of them by [[William Kent]].
However, after the death of George II in October 1760 Kensington Palace never again served as the seat of a reigning monarch. Although the private apartments continued to be used by members of the Royal Family throughout the 19th century, the State Apartments were neglected and used chiefly as stores for paintings and furniture from other palaces. By the end of the century, the building was seriously dilapidated. In April 1897, [[Parliament]] decided to pay for the restoration of the State Apartments on condition that they should be open to the public. This opening took place on 24 May 1899, Queen Victoria’s 80th birthday. From 1912-1914, the Palace also accommodated the London Museum. The Palace was severely damaged in WW2 and not reopened until 1949.

Today, Kensington palace is managed by the independent charity Historic Royal Palaces. Some parts of the Palace (the State Apartments and the Royal Ceremonial Dress Collection) are open to the public, others remain a private residence for members of the Royal Family. The [[Duke and Duchess of Gloucester]], the [[Duke and Duchess of Kent]] and [[Prince and Princess Michael of Kent]] reside at the palace. Until their deaths, [[Princess Margaret]] (Queen Elizabeth’s sister) and [[Princess Diana]] also lived at Kensington Palace.

== Sources ==
* Murphy, Clare (ed.). ''Kensington Palace. The Official Guidebook''. Historic Royal Palaces, 2007.
* http://www.hrp.org.uk/KensingtonPalace/
* http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalResidences/KensingtonPalace/KensingtonPalace.aspx

Prince William

2010-04-24T09:37:18Z

Nadine W.:

William Mountbatten-Windsor (Prince William) was born on 21 June 1982 in London. On 4 August 1982 he was christened in the music room of Buckingham Palace.

== Family ==
Prince William is the older son of the Prince of Wales (Prince Charles) and the Princess of Wales (Diana) and has a younger brother, Prince Harry. His parents split-up in the end of 1992, which was announced by John Major, the Prime Minister; 4 years later, on 28 Augst 1996, their marriage was dissolved, but Princess Diana stayed at [[Kensington Palace]] ([http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/personalprofiles/theprinceofwales/biography/index.html]). When Prince William was 15, his mother was killed in a car crash.

== Education ==
At first, William attended Mrs Mynors School, then he went to Wetherby School (London) between 1987 and 1990. After that, he spent five years at Ludgrove School (Berkshire) and then went to Eton College where he studied History of Art, Geography and Biology. After a gap year, he started studying at St Andrews University (Scotland) and graduated in Geography in 2005.

== Army ==
In 2006, Prince William became an army officer at Sandhurst and a Second Lieutenant of the Household Chivalry. Now he is in training in order to become a Search and Rescue Pilot for the Royal Air Force. In the RAF he is known as "Flight Lieutenant William Wales" ([http://www.royal.gov.uk/ThecurrentRoyalFamily/PrinceWilliam/Adayinthelifeof/Overview.aspx]).

== Charities and patronages ==
At the moment Prince William is the President or Patron of 13 charity organisations, but he also supports other charity organisations and events.

== Sources ==
* Clarence House. "Prince William". 22 April 2010. http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/personalprofiles/princewilliamprinceharry/princewilliam/biography/index.html
* Clarence House. "The Prince of Wales". 22 April 2010. http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/personalprofiles/theprinceofwales/biography/index.html
* The official website of The British Monarchy. 22. April 2010. http://www.royal.gov.uk/ThecurrentRoyalFamily/PrinceWilliam/PrinceWilliam.aspx

Victoria

2010-04-24T09:36:13Z

Nadine W.:

1819 - 1901. Queen of the United Kingdom (1837 - 1901), Empress of India (1876 - 1901).

Queen Victoria, daughter of Edward, the duke of Kent and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg was born on the 24th of May, 1819 in [[Kensington Palace]] in London.

Victoria was almost entirely of German descent and the last British monarch of the House of Hannover. Queen Victoria ascended the throne in 1837 at the age of eigthteen and still attending school. At this time the United Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy in which the king or queen held few political powers and exercised influence by the prime minister's advice.

She reigned the United Kingdom of Britain and Ireland for more than 63 years. During her reign the British Empire expanded to a large extent, reaching its climax as the foremost global power of the time. The upper and middle class in the United Kingdom experienced an unprecedented economic prosperity. Therefore she gave her name to an era, the Victorian Age.

Her husband was Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Together with him Queen Victoria had nine children for all of whom she arranged marriages. Furthermore she had fourty-two grandchildren all across Europe giving her the nickname "mother of Europe".

After the death of her husband in 1861 she almost completely retreated from the public.
She died on the 22th of January, 1901 in [[Osborne House]], Isle of Wight, and her death brought an end to the rule of the House of Hanover in the United Kingdom.

== Sources ==

* http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/627603/Victoria
* St. Aubyn, Giles: ''Queen Victoria - A Portrait''. [Place?]: [Publishing House?], 1991.
* Trevelyan, George Macaulay: ''English social history - A Survey of Six Centuries, Chaucer to Queen Victoria''. [Place?]: [Publishing House?], 1945.

Christopher Wren

2010-04-24T09:35:29Z

Nadine W.:

1632-1723, best known as the architect of [[St Paul's Cathedral]], was an astronomer, geographer, mathematician, physicist, in addition to being one of the best-known British architects of all times. He was educated at Westminster School and later read Latin and physics at Wadham College, Oxford. There he met [[John Wilkins]], who became a friend. Wren graduated B.A. in 1651 and M.A. in 1653, after which he became a fellow at All Souls College. However, in 1657 he was appointed Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College in London. As lecture attendance was free, a group of interested men soon formed, regularly frequenting Wren's lectures. These, John Wilkins, Wren himself and a number of other like-minded scientist, in 1662 founded the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge]]. He later, in the 1680s, became president of the Royal Society. Wren's interest as a scientist were very broad, encompassing astronomy, optics, geography, cosmology, mechanics, microscopy, surveying, medicine and meteorology. In 1661 he was elected Professor of Astronomy at Oxford.

In the mid-1660s Wren became interested in architecture, and studied a great number of buildings and books on the topic. After the [[Great Fire of London]] of 1666, he submitted a master plan for rebuilding the whole city. While this was never adopted, Wren was appointed King’s Surveyor of Works, the highest position as far as building was concerned in all of Britain. In his position he was responsible for overseeing the general rebuilding of the city. In order to focus on architecture, he quit his post at Oxford. King [[Charles II]] knighted Wren in 1773.

==Incomplete list of architectural projects==
* [[The Monument|Monument]] commemorating the Great Fire
* Royal Observatory
* Library at Trinity College, Cambridge
* Chelsea Hospital
* Reconstruction of the state room at Windsor Castle
* Chapel and council chamber at Whitehall
* Extension of [[Kensington Palace]]
* [[Hampton Court]]

==Sources==
* Gould, Heywood. ''Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Franklin Watts, 1970.
* Pevsner, Nikolaus. ''Christopher Wren 1632 - 1723'' Milano: Electa, 1958.
* Bennett, J. A. ''The Mathematical Science of Christopher Wren.'' Cambridge: CUP, 1982.
* Wren, Stephen. ''Parentalia: or, memoirs of the family of the Wrens'' Farnborough: Gregg, 1965.
* Elmes, James. ''Memoirs of the Life and Works of Sir Christopher Wren.'' London: Priestley and Weale, 1823.
* Stephen, Leslie [Ed.]. ''The Dictionary of National Biography''. Oxford: OUP, 1917.
* Wikipedia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Wren Christopher Wren]. Accessed Tuesday, January 12th 2010.

Kensington Palace

2010-04-23T18:11:36Z

Nadine W.:

Royal Residence acquired by [[William III]] (William of Orange) and [[Mary II]] in 1689.

Kensington Palace, originally a private country house known as Nottingham House, was acquired by William III and his wife Mary II from their Secretary of State, the Earl of Nottingham in 1689 for £20,000. The building was then adapted for royal residence by [[Christopher Wren]] who extended the [[Jacobean]] house and (re)constructed a new entrance and courtyard, the Royal Apartments for the royal couple, the Grand Staircase, a council chamber and the Chapel Royal. A private road was also built from the Palace to Hyde Park Corner. Kensington was initially intended as a private retreat by William and Mary, and the domestic character of the building was underlined by the fact that it was always referred to as Kensington House, and not as Kensington Palace. Kensington principally served as a winter residence.

For the next 70 years, the palace hosted not only the court of William and Mary, but also the courts of [[Anne I]], [[George I]] and [[George II]]. It is also the birthplace of the later [[Victoria|Queen Victoria]]. During the reign of Queen Anne, a number of alterations to the gardens and palace grounds were effected, the most famous of which is the building of the Orangery in 1704 / 05. Under George I, the core of the old Nottingham House was reconstructed (probably by [[Colen Campbell]]). In that period, many decorative paintings were added to the ceilings of the reconstructed Palace, most of them by [[William Kent]].
However, after the death of George II in October 1760 Kensington Palace never again served as the seat of a reigning monarch. Although the private apartments continued to be used by members of the Royal Family throughout the 19th century, the State Apartments were neglected and used chiefly as stores for paintings and furniture from other palaces. By the end of the century, the building was seriously dilapidated. In April 1897, [[Parliament]] decided to pay for the restoration of the State Apartments on condition that they should be open to the public. This opening took place on 24 May 1899, Queen Victoria’s 80th birthday. From 1912-1914, the Palace also accommodated the London Museum. The Palace was severely damaged in WW2 and not reopened until 1949.

Today, Kensington palace is managed by the independent charity Historic Royal Palaces. Some parts of the Palace (the State Apartments and the Royal Ceremonial Dress Collection) are open to the public, others remain a private residence for members of the Royal Family. The [[Duke and Duchess of Gloucester]], the [[Duke and Duchess of Kent]] and [[Prince and Princess Michael of Kent]] reside at the palace. Until their deaths, [[Princess Margaret]] (Queen Elizabeth’s sister) and [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] also lived at Kensington Palace.

== Sources ==
* Murphy, Clare (ed.). ''Kensington Palace. The Official Guidebook''. Historic Royal Palaces, 2007.
* http://www.hrp.org.uk/KensingtonPalace/
* http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalResidences/KensingtonPalace/KensingtonPalace.aspx

Kensington Palace

2010-04-23T14:33:07Z

Nadine W.:

Royal Residence acquired by [[William III]] (William of Orange) and [[Mary II]] in 1689.

Kensington Palace, originally a private country house known as Nottingham House, was acquired by William III and his wife Mary II from their Secretary of State, the Earl of Nottingham in 1689 for £20,000.

The building was then adapted for royal residence by [[Christopher Wren]] who extended the Jacobean house and (re)constructed a new entrance and courtyard, the Royal Apartments for the royal couple, the Grand Staircase, a council chamber and the Chapel Royal. A private road was also built from the Palace to Hyde Park Corner.

Kensington was initially intended as a private retreat by William and Mary, and the domestic character of the building was underlined by the fact that it was always referred to as Kensington House, and not as Kensington Palace. Kensington principally served as a winter residence.

For the next 70 years, the palace hosted not only the court of William and Mary, but also the courts of [[Anne I]], [[George I]] and [[George II]]. It is also the birthplace of the later [[Queen Victoria]].
During the reign of Queen Anne, a number of alterations to the gardens and palace grounds were effected, the most famous of which is the building of the Orangery in 1704 / 05. Under George I, the core of the old Nottingham House was reconstructed (probably by [[Colen Campbell]]). In that period, many decorative paintings were added to the ceilings of the reconstructed Palace, most of them by [[William Kent]].
However, after the death of George II in October 1760 Kensington Palace never again served as the seat of a reigning monarch. Although the private apartments continued to be used by members of the Royal Family throughout the 19th century, the State Apartments were neglected and used chiefly as stores for paintings and furniture from other palaces. By the end of the century, the building was seriously dilapidated. In April 1897, [[Parliament]] decided to pay for the restoration of the State Apartments on condition that they should be open to the public. This opening took place on 24 May 1899, Queen Victoria’s 80th birthday. From 1912 -1914, the Palace also accommodated the London Museum. The Palace was severely damaged in WW2 and not reopened until 1949.

Today, Kensington palace is managed by the independent charity Historic Royal Palaces. Some parts of the Palace (the State Apartments and the Royal Ceremonial Dress Collection) are open to the public, others remain a private residence for members of the Royal Family. The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester, the Duke and Duchess of Kent and Prince and Princess Michael of Kent reside at the palace. Until their deaths, Princess Margaret (Queen Elizabeth’s sister) and Diana, Princess of Wales also lived at Kensington Palace.

Sources:

Murphy, Clare (ed.). Kensington Palace. The Official Guidebook. Historic Royal Palaces, 2007.

http://www.hrp.org.uk/KensingtonPalace/

http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalResidences/KensingtonPalace/KensingtonPalace.aspx

Kensington Palace

2010-04-23T13:21:50Z

Nadine W.: Created page with 'Royal Residence acquired by William III (William of Orange) and Mary II in 1689.'

Royal Residence acquired by William III (William of Orange) and Mary II in 1689.

Trooping the Colour

2010-04-23T12:59:03Z

Nadine W.:

The ceremony of ‘Trooping the Colour’ is a military parade that traditionally takes place each year on a Saturday in June. It marks the official celebration of the monarch’s birthday.

[[Elizabeth II]], the current monarch, was born on April 21. However, due to the capricious English weather conditions, it has been decided to celebrate this event later in the year in order to improve the chances of good weather.

Traditionally, the parade takes place on Horse Guards Parade, Whitehall (opposite [[Buckingham Palace]] if you follow The Mall). During the ceremony, the Monarch’s Colour (flag) is ‘trooped’, i.e. carried by a battalion, before the monarch. After being greeted by a Royal salute, the monarch inspects the troops. This is followed by a musical performance of the regimental bands and the carrying by of the Colour. The troops then march past the monarch. Afterwards, (s)he rides to Buckingham Palace on horseback or in a carriage (which Elizabeth II has been doing since 1987) where (s)he takes another salute. The parade ends with a fly-past by the Royal Air Force which the Royal Family observes from the Palace’s balcony.

All soldiers taking part in the parade belong to fully trained and operational troops from the monarch’s Household Division. There are five of these regiments - Grenadier, Coldstream, Scots, Irish and Welsh Guards. Each year the colour is trooped by a different regiment.

The parade itself dates back to the early 18th century or earlier, and is based on the two military ceremonies Trooping the Colour and Mounting The Queen's Guard. There, the flags of the different battalions were slowly carried down the ranks to allow the soldiers to see and recognise them. In 1748, this became part of the official celebration of the monarch’s birthday. Except for WW1, WW2 and a cancellation in 1955 due to a national rail strike, the parade has taken place annually since the accession to the throne of [[George IV]]. [[Edward VII]] was the first monarch to attend the parade in person.

The parade is traditionally watched by the Royal Family and invited guests, but it is also open to the public. However, to watch the entire ceremony on the ranks on Horse Guards Parade, tickets have to be purchased in advance (£25.00 for the 2010 event). The ceremony is also broadcast on the BBC and can usually also be watched live on German TV.

On 13 June 2009 the Colour was trooped by 1st Battalion Irish Guards. In 2010, the parade will take place on 12 June; the Colour will be trooped by 1st Battalion Grenadier Guards.

Sources:

http://www.army.mod.uk/events/ceremonial/1074.aspx

http://www.army.mod.uk/events/events/11237.aspx

http://www.royal.gov.uk/RoyalEventsandCeremonies/TroopingtheColour/TroopingtheColour.aspx

Trooping the Colour

2010-04-23T11:28:57Z

Nadine W.: Created page with 'Trooping the Colour is a military parade held each year in june to celebrate the monarch's birthday.'

Trooping the Colour is a military parade held each year in june to celebrate the monarch's birthday.

Jonathan Wild

2010-01-09T13:41:52Z

Nadine W.:

British thief-taker and criminal

born circa 1682, Wolverhampton, Staffordshire; died 24 May 1725, London

Jonathan Wild was originally trained as a buckle-maker. He married early, but at about the age of 21 deserted his job and family and went to London.
Having run himself into debts, Wild was soon imprisoned in a debtor’s prison. There, in his two to four years of imprisonment, he first got into contact with London’s underworld and established close ties with his fellow inmates, especially with those criminals he thought could be useful for him after his release.

In the aftermath of his imprisonment, Wild first returned to his former profession but couldn’t resist the temptation and began handling stolen property.
At the same time, he opened several offices around London to help victims of crimes in the recovery and restoration of stolen goods. The goods Wild recovered for his clients were most of the time small pieces of sentimental value for which he expected the owners to pay good rewards. These goods themselves had either been stolen on Wild’s specific orders by some of his dependants, or Wild (because of his many contacts in the underworld) knew who had stolen them and could buy the goods in order to sell them at an even higher price. By using this scheme, Wild successfully circumvented an Act of Parliament from 1707 which made fences accessories to robberies.

What is more, he expanded his ‘business’ and soon became head of a large corporation of thieves. This corporation was divided into smaller gangs, each of which covered certain London districts, and / or had a specialist operational target (e.g. there were gangs robbing churches, gangs of highwaymen and conmen, gangs collecting protection money and gangs controlling prostitution). However, Wild was not actively involved in any of these gangs, but only occupied an advisory and organisational function.

Wild also gained notoriety as a thief-taker. Those criminals who operated outside of Wild’s system and those who did not do as he asked or were illoyal and tried to betray him, were mercilessly reported to the authorities by Wild. The rewards he gained as a thief-taker helped him to make a very good living and also increased his power in London’s underworld. Some 120 men were sentenced to death on the basis of Wild’s testimonies or leaks to the authorities.

If it could be avoided, Wild did not handle stolen goods himself, but ‘employed’ artists and craftsmen to alter the design of the valuables (i.e. jewelry and objects of art) that were stolen on his orders. Wild also owned warehouses for storage purposes and had a sloop for smuggling items from London to Holland and Flanders and back.

The authorities were not able to catch Wild until his criminal network began to crumble in the winter of 1724 / 1725, although there were suspicions against him earlier. In 1717, his activities are said to have encouraged an Act of Parliament, the so-called ‘Jonathan Wild's Act’, which made it a capital offence (comparable to felony) to take a reward for the recovery stolen goods without prosecuting the thief.
Initially, Wild was able to circumvent the new law. His offices had to be closed, but work could be carried on in the coffeehouses and on the streets.

Wild was eventually arrested and sentenced to death in early 1725 under the terms of the new Act for the return of some lace he was accused of having stolen before, i.e. for a transaction worth £40.
On May 24, 1725, Wild tried to commit suicide with an overdose of laudanum. However, his suicide attempt did not work, and he was hanged at Tyburn the same day.

Many authors wrote about him. Wild’s “Life and Actions” were related by [[Daniel Defoe]] in 1725. In 1743, [[Henry Fielding]] published the short novel “The Life of Jonathan Wild the Great” as the third volume of his Miscellanies. In this novel, which is a satire based on the life of Wild, Fielding satirises the hypocrisy of public figures of power (such as [[Robert Walpole]]) by setting the figure of Wild as an example of someone who is admired for his clever practices, but who achieves success at the expense of honesty and the good.
The satire is not covered by copyright anymore and can be downloaded from Pjoject Gutenberg.

Sources

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

Drabble, Margaret (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to English Literature''. Oxford: University Press, 1985.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A3176291

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/643490/Jonathan-Wild

Jonathan Wild

2009-11-04T17:59:49Z

Nadine W.: Created page with 'work in progress'

work in progress

John Wilkes

2009-11-04T16:46:11Z

Nadine W.:

born October 17, 1725 in London, died December 26, 1797 in London

British journalist and politician, and a central figure in a number of constitutional disputes that touched the political rights of ordinary people and brought Parliament into great disrepute in the second half of the 18th century.

== Private Life ==

Born as the son of wealthy Clerkenwell distiller, Wilkes married Mary Meade, the aged heiress of the manor of Aylesbury. They had a daughter, Polly. While Wilkes’s early youth can be described as narrow and confined, he later became the proverbial man about town, leading a rakish and dissolute life that often brought him into debts. His marriage finally assured him some financial safety and furthermore allowed him to become part of the gentry of Buckinghamshire.Wilkes also was a member of the Hell-Fire Club, a society that met in the ruins of St. Mary’s Abbey at Medmenham and that was associated with excesses and the celebration of Black Masses.

== Early Years ==

In 1757, Wilkes became MP for Aylesbury. He had already stood for election in 1754 but was not returned to Parliament then. Having run an expensive election campaign (said to have cost him £7,000, most of it used for bribes) and chronically overspending, Wilkes hoped to improve his finances through political advancement. He supported William Pitt the Elder, but Pitt’s resignation from the cabinet was a serious setback for Wilkes’s ambitions.
Wilkes was among the leading opponents of Lord Bute. Bute, who had tutored [[George III]] in his youth and thus had become the future king’s favourite, gained a lot of political influence after George’s succession to the throne, which gave rise to great politcal controversy.

== The ''North Briton'' “affair” ==

In June 1762, Wilkes first published a weekly periodical with the satirical name ''North Briton''. By choosing this name, he stressed the opposition to Tobias Smollett’s ''Briton'', a paper financed by Lord Bute and consequently published in support of the Bute administration. In the ''North Briton'', Wilkes supported a campaign against Bute led by Earl Temple. Bute was not only attacked personally and accused of a sexual relationship to the king’s mother, but Wilkes also included general abuse of Scots, and criticism on a number of other issues, like, e.g., the fact that London’s merchants were underrepresented in the House of Commons.

On 23 April 1763, Wilkes was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London after an article in No. 45 of the ''North Briton'' in which he attacked the Peace of Paris and denounced the ministerial statements of the King’s Speech of 1763 (of which he had obtained a preview by Pitt and Temple). This was the first time the King’s Speech was exposed as a factual government declaration. As a consequence, government could not hide behind the king anymore, but had to assume responsibilities for the statements made – a novelty in the 18th century.
Wilkes was charged with seditious libel, i.e. the endangerment of public peace, for the publication of issue No.45. General warrants were issued by the Secretary of State, Lord Halifax, which, in case of seditious libel, allowed him to order the arrest of persons unnamed, as well as the search of all premises associated with these people. The issuing of the general warrants also enabled government to censor all prints and papers that were too critical of its proceedings. In the end, 49 people (including Wilkes) associated with printing or publishing issue No. 45 of the ''North Briton'' were arrested. Parliament even ordered the public burning of issue No. 45, but this was prevented by an angry mob of people supporting Wilkes and his cause.

Wilkes successfully challenged the use of general warrants. These were declared illegal in December 1763 by Chief Justice Pratt, Lord Camden, because the fact that no names of the people and property concerned by the warrant were given could “affect the persons and property of every man in the Kingdom and [this] is totally subversive of the liberty of the subject” (Arnold-Baker). Pratt also argued that “public policy is not an argument in a court of law” (Plumb).
In 1766, the ruling was confirmed by the House of Commons, and in 1769 Wilkes won ₤4,000 damages from Halifax for wrongful arrest and thus secured a considerable victory for the liberty of the individual and the freedom of press.

== Parliament’s reaction ==

However, government maintained its original position concerning issue No.45 and also dug up the obscene poem ''Essay on Woman'' written by Wilkes and Thomas Potter, a parody on [[Alexander Pope]]’s ''Essay on Man''. In November 1973, the poem was read to the House of Lords and subsequently voted a libel and a breach of the privileges awarded to MPs. Reacting to the threat from Parliament and since he had only few influencial friends, Wilkes fled to the continent at the beginning of 1764. During his absence, he was condemned by the House of Commons for publishing a scandalous, obscene, and impious libel. The expulsion from Parliament followed shortly afterwards. Wilkes was outlawed in October 1764 for circumventing his sentence by fleeing to France.

== Return to England ==

Wilkes returned to England in 1768, mainly because he had run out of money. Still, he was greeted enthousiastically by his supporters. People had not forgotten that, four years ago, government had acted for the Crown and violated the freedom of the press and the individual. These anti-governmental sentiments made possible his election as MP for Middlesex in the same year.
Although the outlawry charge was repealed on a technical basis, Wilkes waived his privileges as a MP. Accordingly, he was convicted for libel and sent to prison for 22 months. Wilkes had taken this decision to waive his rights based on political calculations, since he hoped to become a popular hero and martyr once more. But as his petition for a pardon was refused, he soon continued his anti-governmental polemics.
After Wilkes’s imprisonment, on 10 May 1768, 20 000 people demonstrated for him at St George’s Field. The military intervened, 11 people were killed.

On 3 February 1769, Wilkes was again expelled from Parliament because he continued his polemic attacks against government from prison (fuelled also by government’s congratulations for the troups of St George’s field). But Wilkes’s popularity ensured his re-election on 16 February 1769. Parliament again expelled him, but he was re-elected a second time in March 1769. This was followed by another expulsion and the third re-election in April 1769. But despite Wilkes’s repeated re-election, Henry Luttrell (the government’s candidate) was declared elected – although he had only received a minority of votes – and Wilkes was declared incapable of ever taking a seat in Parliament. This government intervention led to a tide of petitions claiming the right of the electors to choose their candidate (counting 60 000 signatures on the whole).

== Later Years ==

Wilkes was released from prison in 1770. In January 1769, he had been elected Alderman in the City of London, and on his release was able to finally take his post. In 1770, he intervened in the so-called ‘Printer’s Case’, when Parliament tried to reinforce the technical secrecy of its debates against the printers to prevent further public agitation over its proceedings. However, a court of law refused to sentence journalists and printers for reporting from Parliament, and so Parliament decided to arrest these journalists and printers on its own authority. Here, Wilkes successfully prevented the arrest of the printers by taking advantage of the judicial privileges of the city. Subsequently, reporters were exclueded less frequently from parliamentary debates as it was reluctant to risk another conflict.

In 1774, Wilkes became Lord Mayor of London. In the same year, he and 11 of his supporters were elected to Parliament and could take their seats without disturbance. Wilkes and his supporters pursued a serious program at first, including shorther parliaments and bills against placemen and crown contractors. In 1776, Wilkes included the principle of universal male suffrage into his measure for parliamentary reform. This also included the claim for true representation, i.e. the demand for a reform of the borough system, but this was rejected by Parliament. Wilkes also advocated complete religious toleration and supported the American colonists. Nevertheless, he was soon accused of insincerity and allegedly he only made his later speeches against government to maintain his public popularity. This popularity, however, faded during the Gordon riots of 1780 when Wilkes firmly suppressed all unrest and thus opposed his former supporters. Although he was reelected to Parliament in 1779 and 1784 as MP for Middlesex, Wilkes’s popularity continued to fade, especially since the issues that had once made him popular had lost more and more of their significance to daily politics. Consequently, his movement could not make a lasting impression. Wilkes stayed in Parliament until 1790.

== Supporters ==

From 1763 to 1774, ‘Wilkes and Liberty’ was slogan of the crowds demonstrating for his support. This support was especially strong and fervent in London: Parliament was thought unrepresentative and corrupt, and Wilkes the personification of liberty. However, the movement failed to get substantial support in the rural areas.

On 20 February 1769, Wilkes most active supporters founded the ‘Society of Supporters of the Bill of Rights’ to defend the legal freedom to support “Mr. Wilkes and his Cause” (Kluxen). The Society raised ₤20,000 until 1770 in order to cover Wilkes’s debts. What is more, they were the first to use modern methods of agitation, i.e. the press was deliberately and carefully exploited, and paid agents were sent around in the country to make speeches.

Wilkes managed to gain support even from America. While he was in prison, Virginia sent tobacco, Boston turtles, and South Carolina voted him ₤1,500 to pay his debts. Similar to his English supporters, the Americans felt themselves to be the victims of prejudice, blind insistence on constitutional rights, and ignorance of the principles of justice and humanity. Wilkes was also supported also by the Rational Dissenters, who hated his morals, but were leading advocates of parliamentary reform.

However, it should not be forgotten that Wilkes needed the conflict with the British government to maintain his popularity.He is thus often called a “champion of mass politics” (Cannon), which is one of the strands of popular radicalism.

----

Sources

Arnold-Baker, Charles. ''The Companion to British History''. Tunbridge Wells: Longross, 1996.

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

Haan, Heiner und Gottfried Haan. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. C.H.Beck: München, 1993.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands''. Kröner: Stuttgart, 1968

Plumb, J.H. ''England in the Eighteenth Century''. Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1950.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/643811/John-Wilkes

John Wilkes

2009-11-04T16:44:44Z

Nadine W.:

born October 17, 1725 in London, died December 26, 1797 in London

British journalist and politician, and a central figure in a number of constitutional disputes that touched the political rights of ordinary people and brought Parliament into great disrepute in the second half of the 18th century.

== Private Life ==

Born as the son of wealthy Clerkenwell distiller, Wilkes married Mary Meade, the aged heiress of the manor of Aylesbury. They had a daughter, Polly. While Wilkes’s early youth can be described as narrow and confined, he later became the proverbial man about town, leading a rakish and dissolute life that often brought him into debts. His marriage finally assured him some financial safety and furthermore allowed him to become part of the gentry of Buckinghamshire.Wilkes also was a member of the Hell-Fire Club, a society that met in the ruins of St. Mary’s Abbey at Medmenham and that was associated with excesses and the celebration of Black Masses.

== Early years ==

In 1757, Wilkes became MP for Aylesbury. He had already stood for election in 1754 but was not returned to Parliament then. Having run an expensive election campaign (said to have cost him £7,000, most of it used for bribes) and chronically overspending, Wilkes hoped to improve his finances through political advancement. He supported William Pitt the Elder, but Pitt’s resignation from the cabinet was a serious setback for Wilkes’s ambitions.
Wilkes was among the leading opponents of Lord Bute. Bute, who had tutored [[George III]] in his youth and thus had become the future king’s favourite, gained a lot of political influence after George’s succession to the throne, which gave rise to great politcal controversy.

== The ''North Briton'' “affair” ==

In June 1762, Wilkes first published a weekly periodical with the satirical name ''North Briton''. By choosing this name, he stressed the opposition to Tobias Smollett’s ''Briton'', a paper financed by Lord Bute and consequently published in support of the Bute administration. In the ''North Briton'', Wilkes supported a campaign against Bute led by Earl Temple. Bute was not only attacked personally and accused of a sexual relationship to the king’s mother, but Wilkes also included general abuse of Scots, and criticism on a number of other issues, like, e.g., the fact that London’s merchants were underrepresented in the House of Commons.

On 23 April 1763, Wilkes was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London after an article in No. 45 of the ''North Briton'' in which he attacked the Peace of Paris and denounced the ministerial statements of the King’s Speech of 1763 (of which he had obtained a preview by Pitt and Temple). This was the first time the King’s Speech was exposed as a factual government declaration. As a consequence, government could not hide behind the king anymore, but had to assume responsibilities for the statements made – a novelty in the 18th century.
Wilkes was charged with seditious libel, i.e. the endangerment of public peace, for the publication of issue No.45. General warrants were issued by the Secretary of State, Lord Halifax, which, in case of seditious libel, allowed him to order the arrest of persons unnamed, as well as the search of all premises associated with these people. The issuing of the general warrants also enabled government to censor all prints and papers that were too critical of its proceedings. In the end, 49 people (including Wilkes) associated with printing or publishing issue No. 45 of the ''North Briton'' were arrested. Parliament even ordered the public burning of issue No. 45, but this was prevented by an angry mob of people supporting Wilkes and his cause.

Wilkes successfully challenged the use of general warrants. These were declared illegal in December 1763 by Chief Justice Pratt, Lord Camden, because the fact that no names of the people and property concerned by the warrant were given could “affect the persons and property of every man in the Kingdom and [this] is totally subversive of the liberty of the subject” (Arnold-Baker). Pratt also argued that “public policy is not an argument in a court of law” (Plumb).
In 1766, the ruling was confirmed by the House of Commons, and in 1769 Wilkes won ₤4,000 damages from Halifax for wrongful arrest and thus secured a considerable victory for the liberty of the individual and the freedom of press.

== Parliament’s reaction ==

However, government maintained its original position concerning issue No.45 and also dug up the obscene poem ''Essay on Woman'' written by Wilkes and Thomas Potter, a parody on [[Alexander Pope]]’s ''Essay on Man''. In November 1973, the poem was read to the House of Lords and subsequently voted a libel and a breach of the privileges awarded to MPs. Reacting to the threat from Parliament and since he had only few influencial friends, Wilkes fled to the continent at the beginning of 1764. During his absence, he was condemned by the House of Commons for publishing a scandalous, obscene, and impious libel. The expulsion from Parliament followed shortly afterwards. Wilkes was outlawed in October 1764 for circumventing his sentence by fleeing to France.

== Return to England ==

Wilkes returned to England in 1768, mainly because he had run out of money. Still, he was greeted enthousiastically by his supporters. People had not forgotten that, four years ago, government had acted for the Crown and violated the freedom of the press and the individual. These anti-governmental sentiments made possible his election as MP for Middlesex in the same year.
Although the outlawry charge was repealed on a technical basis, Wilkes waived his privileges as a MP. Accordingly, he was convicted for libel and sent to prison for 22 months. Wilkes had taken this decision to waive his rights based on political calculations, since he hoped to become a popular hero and martyr once more. But as his petition for a pardon was refused, he soon continued his anti-governmental polemics.
After Wilkes’s imprisonment, on 10 May 1768, 20 000 people demonstrated for him at St George’s Field. The military intervened, 11 people were killed.

On 3 February 1769, Wilkes was again expelled from Parliament because he continued his polemic attacks against government from prison (fuelled also by government’s congratulations for the troups of St George’s field). But Wilkes’s popularity ensured his re-election on 16 February 1769. Parliament again expelled him, but he was re-elected a second time in March 1769. This was followed by another expulsion and the third re-election in April 1769. But despite Wilkes’s repeated re-election, Henry Luttrell (the government’s candidate) was declared elected – although he had only received a minority of votes – and Wilkes was declared incapable of ever taking a seat in Parliament. This government intervention led to a tide of petitions claiming the right of the electors to choose their candidate (counting 60 000 signatures on the whole).

== Later Years ==

Wilkes was released from prison in 1770. In January 1769, he had been elected Alderman in the City of London, and on his release was able to finally take his post. In 1770, he intervened in the so-called ‘Printer’s Case’, when Parliament tried to reinforce the technical secrecy of its debates against the printers to prevent further public agitation over its proceedings. However, a court of law refused to sentence journalists and printers for reporting from Parliament, and so Parliament decided to arrest these journalists and printers on its own authority. Here, Wilkes successfully prevented the arrest of the printers by taking advantage of the judicial privileges of the city. Subsequently, reporters were exclueded less frequently from parliamentary debates as it was reluctant to risk another conflict.

In 1774, Wilkes became Lord Mayor of London. In the same year, he and 11 of his supporters were elected to Parliament and could take their seats without disturbance. Wilkes and his supporters pursued a serious program at first, including shorther parliaments and bills against placemen and crown contractors. In 1776, Wilkes included the principle of universal male suffrage into his measure for parliamentary reform. This also included the claim for true representation, i.e. the demand for a reform of the borough system, but this was rejected by Parliament. Wilkes also advocated complete religious toleration and supported the American colonists. Nevertheless, he was soon accused of insincerity and allegedly he only made his later speeches against government to maintain his public popularity. This popularity, however, faded during the Gordon riots of 1780 when Wilkes firmly suppressed all unrest and thus opposed his former supporters. Although he was reelected to Parliament in 1779 and 1784 as MP for Middlesex, Wilkes’s popularity continued to fade, especially since the issues that had once made him popular had lost more and more of their significance to daily politics. Consequently, his movement could not make a lasting impression. Wilkes stayed in Parliament until 1790.

== Supporters ==

From 1763 to 1774, ‘Wilkes and Liberty’ was slogan of the crowds demonstrating for his support. This support was especially strong and fervent in London: Parliament was thought unrepresentative and corrupt, and Wilkes the personification of liberty. However, the movement failed to get substantial support in the rural areas.

On 20 February 1769, Wilkes most active supporters founded the ‘Society of Supporters of the Bill of Rights’ to defend the legal freedom to support “Mr. Wilkes and his Cause” (Kluxen). The Society raised ₤20,000 until 1770 in order to cover Wilkes’s debts. What is more, they were the first to use modern methods of agitation, i.e. the press was deliberately and carefully exploited, and paid agents were sent around in the country to make speeches.

Wilkes managed to gain support even from America. While he was in prison, Virginia sent tobacco, Boston turtles, and South Carolina voted him ₤1,500 to pay his debts. Similar to his English supporters, the Americans felt themselves to be the victims of prejudice, blind insistence on constitutional rights, and ignorance of the principles of justice and humanity. Wilkes was also supported also by the Rational Dissenters, who hated his morals, but were leading advocates of parliamentary reform.

However, it should not be forgotten that Wilkes needed the conflict with the British government to maintain his popularity.He is thus often called a “champion of mass politics” (Cannon), which is one of the strands of popular radicalism.

----

Sources

Arnold-Baker, Charles. ''The Companion to British History''. Tunbridge Wells: Longross, 1996.

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

Haan, Heiner und Gottfried Haan. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. C.H.Beck: München, 1993.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands''. Kröner: Stuttgart, 1968

Plumb, J.H. ''England in the Eighteenth Century''. Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1950.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/643811/John-Wilkes

John Wilkes

2009-11-04T16:41:33Z

Nadine W.:

born October 17, 1725 in London, died December 26, 1797 in London

British journalist and politician, and a central figure in a number of constitutional disputes that touched the political rights of ordinary people and brought Parliament into great disrepute in the second half of the 18th century.

== Private Life ==

Born as the son of wealthy Clerkenwell distiller, Wilkes married Mary Meade, the aged heiress of the manor of Aylesbury. They had a daughter, Polly. While Wilkes’s early youth can be described as narrow and confined, he later became the proverbial man about town, leading a rakish and dissolute life that often brought him into debts. His marriage finally assured him some financial safety and furthermore allowed him to become part of the gentry of Buckinghamshire.Wilkes also was a member of the Hell-Fire Club, a society that met in the ruins of St. Mary’s Abbey at Medmenham and that was associated with excesses and the celebration of Black Masses.

== Early years ==

In 1757, Wilkes became MP for Aylesbury. He had already stood for election in 1754 but was not returned to Parliament then. Having run an expensive election campaign (said to have cost him £7,000, most of it used for bribes) and chronically overspending, Wilkes hoped to improve his finances through political advancement. He supported William Pitt the Elder, but Pitt’s resignation from the cabinet was a serious setback for Wilkes’s ambitions.
Wilkes was among the leading opponents of Lord Bute. Bute, who had tutored George III in his youth and thus had become the future king’s favourite, gained a lot of political influence after George’s succession to the throne, which gave rise to great politcal controversy.

== The ''North Briton'' “affair” ==

In June 1762, Wilkes first published a weekly periodical with the satirical name ''North Briton''. By choosing this name, he stressed the opposition to Tobias Smollett’s ''Briton'', a paper financed by Lord Bute and consequently published in support of the Bute administration. In the ''North Briton'', Wilkes supported a campaign against Bute led by Earl Temple. Bute was not only attacked personally and accused of a sexual relationship to the king’s mother, but Wilkes also included general abuse of Scots, and criticism on a number of other issues, like, e.g., the fact that London’s merchants were underrepresented in the House of Commons.

On 23 April 1763, Wilkes was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London after an article in No. 45 of the ''North Briton'' in which he attacked the Peace of Paris and denounced the ministerial statements of the King’s Speech of 1763 (of which he had obtained a preview by Pitt and Temple). This was the first time the King’s Speech was exposed as a factual government declaration. As a consequence, government could not hide behind the king anymore, but had to assume responsibilities for the statements made – a novelty in the 18th century.
Wilkes was charged with seditious libel, i.e. the endangerment of public peace, for the publication of issue No.45. General warrants were issued by the Secretary of State, Lord Halifax, which, in case of seditious libel, allowed him to order the arrest of persons unnamed, as well as the search of all premises associated with these people. The issuing of the general warrants also enabled government to censor all prints and papers that were too critical of its proceedings. In the end, 49 people (including Wilkes) associated with printing or publishing issue No. 45 of the ''North Briton'' were arrested. Parliament even ordered the public burning of issue No. 45, but this was prevented by an angry mob of people supporting Wilkes and his cause.

Wilkes successfully challenged the use of general warrants. These were declared illegal in December 1763 by Chief Justice Pratt, Lord Camden, because the fact that no names of the people and property concerned by the warrant were given could “affect the persons and property of every man in the Kingdom and [this] is totally subversive of the liberty of the subject” (Arnold-Baker). Pratt also argued that “public policy is not an argument in a court of law” (Plumb).
In 1766, the ruling was confirmed by the House of Commons, and in 1769 Wilkes won ₤4,000 damages from Halifax for wrongful arrest and thus secured a considerable victory for the liberty of the individual and the freedom of press.

== Parliament’s reaction ==

However, government maintained its original position concerning issue No.45 and also dug up the obscene poem ''Essay on Woman'' written by Wilkes and Thomas Potter, a parody on Alexander Pope’s ''Essay on Man''. In November 1973, the poem was read to the House of Lords and subsequently voted a libel and a breach of the privileges awarded to MPs. Reacting to the threat from Parliament and since he had only few influencial friends, Wilkes fled to the continent at the beginning of 1764. During his absence, he was condemned by the House of Commons for publishing a scandalous, obscene, and impious libel. The expulsion from Parliament followed shortly afterwards. Wilkes was outlawed in October 1764 for circumventing his sentence by fleeing to France.

== Return to England ==

Wilkes returned to England in 1768, mainly because he had run out of money. Still, he was greeted enthousiastically by his supporters. People had not forgotten that, four years ago, government had acted for the Crown and violated the freedom of the press and the individual. These anti-governmental sentiments made possible his election as MP for Middlesex in the same year.
Although the outlawry charge was repealed on a technical basis, Wilkes waived his privileges as a MP. Accordingly, he was convicted for libel and sent to prison for 22 months. Wilkes had taken this decision to waive his rights based on political calculations, since he hoped to become a popular hero and martyr once more. But as his petition for a pardon was refused, he soon continued his anti-governmental polemics.
After Wilkes’s imprisonment, on 10 May 1768, 20 000 people demonstrated for him at St George’s Field. The military intervened, 11 people were killed.

On 3 February 1769, Wilkes was again expelled from Parliament because he continued his polemic attacks against government from prison (fuelled also by government’s congratulations for the troups of St George’s field). But Wilkes’s popularity ensured his re-election on 16 Frebraury 1769. Parliament again expelled him, but he was re-elected a second time in March 1769. This was followed by another expulsion and the third re-election in April 1769. But despite Wilkes’s repeated re-election, Henry Luttrell (the government’s candidate) was declared elected – although he had only received a minority of votes – and Wilkes was declared incapable of ever taking a seat in Parliament. This government intervention led to a tide of petitions claiming the right of the electors to choose their candidate (counting 60 000 signatures on the whole).

== Later Years ==

Wilkes was released from prison in 1770. In January 1769, he had been elected Alderman in the City of London, and on his release was able to finally take his post. In 1770, he intervened in the so-called ‘Printer’s Case’, when Parliament tried to reinforce the technical secrecy of its debates against the printers to prevent further public agitation over its proceedings. However, a court of law refused to sentence journalists and printers for reporting from Parliament, and so Parliament decided to arrest these journalists and printers on its own authority. Here, Wilkes successfully prevented the arrest of the printers by taking advantage of the judicial privileges of the city. Subsequently, reporters were exclueded less frequently from parliamentary debates as it was reluctant to risk another conflict.

In 1774, Wilkes became Lord Mayor of London. In the same year, he and 11 of his supporters were elected to Parliament and could take their seats without disturbance. Wilkes and his supporters pursued a serious program at first, including shorther parliaments and bills against placemen and crown contractors. In 1776, Wilkes included the principle of universal male suffrage into his measure for parliamentary reform. This also included the claim for true representation, i.e. the demand for a reform of the borough system, but this was rejected by Parliament. Wilkes also advocated complete religious toleration and supported the American colonists. Nevertheless, he was soon accused of insincerity and allegedly he only made his later speeches against government to maintain his public popularity. This popularity, however, faded during the Gordon riots of 1780 when Wilkes firmly suppressed all unrest and thus opposed his former supporters. Although he was reelected to Parliament in 1779 and 1784 as MP for Middlesex, Wilkes’s popularity continued to fade, especially since the issues that had once made him popular had lost more and more of their significance to daily politics. Consequently, his movement could not make a lasting impression. Wilkes stayed in Parliament until 1790.

== Supporters ==

From 1763 to 1774, ‘Wilkes and Liberty’ was slogan of the crowds demonstrating for his support. This support was especially strong and fervent in London: Parliament was thought unrepresentative and corrupt, and Wilkes the personification of liberty. However, the movement failed to get substantial support in the rural areas.

On 20 February 1769, Wilkes most active supporters founded the ‘Society of Supporters of the Bill of Rights’ to defend the legal freedom to support “Mr. Wilkes and his Cause” (Kluxen). The Society raised ₤20,000 until 1770 in order to cover Wilkes’s debts. What is more, they were the first to use modern methods of agitation, i.e. the press was deliberately and carefully exploited, and paid agents were sent around in the country to make speeches.

Wilkes managed to gain support even from America. While he was in prison, Virginia sent tobacco, Boston turtles, and South Carolina voted him ₤1,500 to pay his debts. Similar to his English supporters, the Americans felt themselves to be the victims of prejudice, blind insistence on constitutional rights, and ignorance of the principles of justice and humanity. Wilkes was also supported also by the Rational Dissenters, who hated his morals, but were leading advocates of parliamentary reform.

However, it should not be forgotten that Wilkes needed the conflict with the British government to maintain his popularity.He is thus often called a “champion of mass politics” (Cannon), which is one of the strands of popular radicalism.

----

Sources

Arnold-Baker, Charles. ''The Companion to British History''. Tunbridge Wells: Longross, 1996.

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

Haan, Heiner und Gottfried Haan. ''Geschichte Englands vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert''. C.H.Beck: München, 1993.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands''. Kröner: Stuttgart, 1968

Plumb, J.H. ''England in the Eighteenth Century''. Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1950.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/643811/John-Wilkes

Jacobitism

2009-10-30T15:38:40Z

Nadine W.:

== Definition ==

Term referring to the movement or party which in the 18th century supported the restoration of the Stuart monarchy to the British throne after [[James II]]’s deposition at the [[Glorious Revolution]] in 1688.

Not only does the term Jacobitism refer to the forces supporting James’s return to England and to the throne, but it also maintains the claims to the throne of his descendants, i.e. his son James Francis Edward Stuart (also known as the Old Pretender or ‘James III’), as well as his grandsons Charles Edward Casimir Stuart (also known as the Young Pretender, Bonnie Prince Charlie, or ‘Charles III’) and Henry Benedict Maria Stuart (also known as the Cardinal Duke of York or ‘Henry IX’).

In the 18th century, Jacobitism not only had a political, but also a religious dimension.
James II and his descendants were Catholics refusing to convert to Protestantism. James had even tried to recatholicise England, which is why he and his descendants were excluded from the succession in 1688. After the [[Act of Settlement]] (1701) that finally excluded all Catholics or persons married to Catholics from the British throne, the restoration of the Stuart dynasty was virtually impossible.

== The supporters ==

Most English Jacobites were Protestants or Non-jurors (meaning that they had refused to take the Oath of Allegiance to William and Mary in 1689). Others, who had previously taken the Oath, only turned to Jacobitism in 1714 as a sign of refusal of the Hanoverian succession. Jacobitism is most strongly associated with the Tories and Jacobites were only in a small majority in England.

Jacobitism was strongest in Scotland, the home of the Stuart dynasty. After the disestablishment of the Episcopalian Church at the passing of the [[Act of Union (1707)]] many former Episcopalians and those refusing to accept the Union became Jacobites. The main Scottish clans to support the Stuart dynasty were Gordon, Macdonald, and Cameron (25,000 supporters in all). What is more, Jacobite ideas also appealed to the lower and sometimes criminal elements of society, which makes Jacobitism a form of social protest touching many groups in society.

== Jacobite MPs ==

Until today, the question which MPs were or were not Jacobites has been a controversial topic. It has been claimed by some historians (cf. Cannon) that more than a third of the Tory MPs were Jacobites (including the party leaders), while others have maintained the idea that a majority of the Tory party was clearly Hanoverian after 1714.

The main problem here lies with the definiton of the terms ‘Jacobite’ or ‘Jacobitism’, especially due to the fact that only little evidence has survived until today. When one takes into account that Jacobites were taking part in treasonable activities, and that they had to be careful not to betray their cause, it is not surprising that most of the evidence that has actually survived is often ambiguous or misleading. What is also important to notice, is the fact that in the 18th century the word ‘Jacobite’ was often used as a smearword to discredit political opponents. This can make it difficult to judge nowadays.

While some historians believe that ‘once a Jacobite always a Jacobite’, others claim that most of the time sympathies changed depending on the current political mood and circumstances. A politician could consequently have multiple reasons to favour Jacobitism: be it because the Jacobites were one of the very few existing oppositional groups, or be it to use them to achieve one’s personal political aims.

== The [[Jacobite risings]] ==

Due to the relatively small number of supporters, it is not surprising that the Jacobites were most active in times of war, when the country was weakened and when there were foreign powers (especially Catholic and absolutist France where the Pretender was in exile) to support its cause. However, after the death of Louis XIV the Jacobites lost ground in France, and – under political and military pressure from England – James Edward even had to leave his exile and relocate to Avignon.

In the course of the century, there were four main Jacobite risings in order to reinstitute the Stuart dynasty to the throne: 1708, 1715, 1719, and 1745.

In 1708, responding to the Scottish discontent at the passing of the Act of Union, [[James Edward]] (who was finally 18) and his fleet tried to land at the Scottish coast. However, his undertaking was crossed by English intelligence and strategic slips on the part of the invaders, and thus the fleet had to return to its French exile.

In 1715, after the death of Queen Anne, the Jacobites again tried to seize the crown. But her death and the arrival of George I came too sudden for proper preparations. Subsequently, George I chose Whig ministers. They instantly impeached the leading Tories such as Bolingbroke and the Duke of Ormonde, who had hoped for a coup d’état and now had to flee to France. Again, the British troops (supported by the Dutch army) managed to fight back the invading troops.

In 1719, another Jacobite expedition, this time escorted by Spanish forces, reached Scotland. However, it got little support and the Jacobites were soon defeated.

1745 marked the last important Jacobite rebellion. Charles Edward and his brother Henry landed in Scotland, and in an at first successful campaign even took Edinburgh. But Jacobitism was largely defended as a decisive political force after the retreat from Derby by the troops of the Young Pretender and their subsequent defeat at Culloden in 1746.
In all these rebellions, it became clear that Scotland was central to Jacobitism, and especially in 1715 and 1745, when few Englishmen supported the rebellions and it was the Scots who battled for the Stuarts.

== The “real” Royal family ==

Still today, there is a group of Jacobites maintaining the view that only the descendants of James II have a legitimate claim to the throne. According to them, the succession to the throne is today represented by Duke Francis of Bavaria.

For detailed information see www.jacobite.ca.

----

'''Sources'''

Arnold-Baker, Charles. ''The Companion to British History''. Tunbridge Wells: Longross, 1996.

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands''. Stuttgart: Kröner, 1968.

www.jacobite.ca

John Wilkes

2009-10-28T16:54:37Z

Nadine W.: Created page with 'work in progress'

work in progress

Jacobitism

2009-10-28T16:44:47Z

Nadine W.:

== Definition ==

Term referring to the movement or party which in the 18th century supported the restoration of the Stuart monarchy to the British throne after [[James II]]’s deposition at the [[Glorious Revolution]] in 1688.

Not only does the term Jacobitism refer to the forces supporting James’s return to England and to the throne, but it also maintains the claims to the throne of his descendants, i.e. his son James Francis Edward Stuart (also known as the Old Pretender or ‘James III’), as well as his grandsons Charles Edward Casimir Stuart (also known as the Young Pretender, Bonnie Prince Charlie, or ‘Charles III’) and Henry Benedict Maria Stuart (also known as the Cardinal Duke of York or ‘Henry IX’).

In the 18th century, Jacobitism not only had a political, but also a religious dimension.
James II and his descendants were Catholics refusing to convert to Protestantism. James had even tried to recatholicise England, which is why he and his descendants were excluded from thesuccession in 1688. After the [[Act of Settlement]] (1701) that finally excluded all Catholics or persons married to Catholics from the British throne, the restoration of the Stuart dynasty was virtually impossible.

== The supporters ==

Most English Jacobites were Protestants or Non-jurors (meaning that they had refused to take the Oath of Allegiance to William and Mary in 1689). Others, who had previously taken the Oath, only turned to Jacobitism in1714 as a sign of refusal of the Hanoverian succession. Jacobitism is most strongly associated with the Tories . Still, the Jacobites were only in a small majority in England.

Jacobitism was strongest in Scotland, a Catholic country and also the home of the Stuart dynasty. After the disestablishment of the Episcopalian Church at the passing of the [[Act of Union]] (1707) many former Episcopalians and those refusing to accept the Union became Jacobites. The main Scottish clans to support the Stuart dynasty were Gordon, Macdonald, and Cameron (25,000 supporters in all).

What is more, Jacobite ideas also appealed to the lower and sometimes criminal elements of society, which makes Jacobitism a form of social protest touching many gropus in society.

== Jacobite MPs ==

Until today, the question which MPs were or were not Jacobites has been a controversial topic. It has been claimed by some historians that more than a third of the Tory MPs were Jacobites (including the party leaders), while others have maintained the idea that a majority of the Tory party was clearly Hanoverian after 1714.

The main problem here lies with the definiton of the terms ‘Jacobite’ or ‘Jacobitism’, especially due to the fact that only little evidence has survived until today. When one takes into account that Jacobites were taking part in treasonable activities, and that they had to be careful not to betray their cause, it is not surprising that most of the evidence that has actually survived is often ambiguous or misleading. What is also important to notice, is the fact that in the 18th century the word ‘Jacobite’ was often used as a smearword to discredit political opponents. This can make it difficult to judge nowadays.

While some historians believe that ‘once a Jacobite always a Jacobite’, others claim that most of the time sympathies changed depending on the current political mood and circumstances. A politician could consequently have multiple reasons to favour Jacobitism: be it because the Jacobites were one of the very few existing oppositional groups, or be it to use them to achieve one’s personal political aims.

== The [[Jacobite risings]] ==

Due to the relatively small number of supporters, it is not surprising that the Jacobites were most active in times of war, when the country was weakened and when there were foreign powers (especially Catholic and absolutistic France where the Pretender was in exile) to support its cause. However, after the death of Louis XIV the Jacobites lost ground in France, and – under political and military pressure from England – James Edward even had to leave his exile and relocate to Avignon.

In the course of the century, there were four main Jacobite risings in order to reinstitute the Stuart dynasty to the throne:1708, 1715, 1719, and 1745.

In 1708, responding to the Scottish discontent at the passing of the Act of Union, [[James Edward]] (who was finally 18) and his fleet tried to land at the Scottish coast. However, his undertaking was crossed by English intelligence and strategic slips on the part of the invaders, and thus the fleet had to return to its French exile.

In 1715, after the death of Queen Anne, the Jacobitites again tried to seize the crown. But her death and the arrival of George I came too sudden for proper preparations. Subsequently, George I chose Whig ministers. They instantly impeached the leading Tories such as Bolingbroke and the Duke of Ormonde, who had hoped for a coup d’état and now had to flee to France. Again, the British troops (supported by the Dutch army) managed to fight back the invading troops.

In 1719, another Jacobite expedition, this time escorted by Spanish forces, reached Scotland. However, it got little support and the Jacobites were soon defeated.

1745 marked the last important Jacobite rebellion. Charles Edward and his brother Henry landed in Scotland, and in an at first successful campaign even took Edinburgh. But Jacobitism was largely defended as a decisive political force after the retreat from Derby by the troops of the Young Pretender and their subsequent defeat at Culloden in 1746.
In all these rebellions, it became clear that Scotland was central to Jacobitism, and especially in 1715 and 1745, when few Englishmen supported the rebellions and it were the Scots who battled for the Stuarts.

== The “real” Royal family ==

Still today, there is a group of Jacobites maintaining the view that only the descendants of James II have a legitimate claim to the throne. According to them, the succession to the throne is today represented by Duke Francis of Bavaria.

For detailed information see www.jacobite.ca.

----

'''Sources'''

Arnold-Baker, Charles. ''The Companion to British History''. Tunbridge Wells: Longross, 1996.

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands''. Kröner: Stuttgart, 1968.

www.jacobite.ca

Jacobitism

2009-10-28T16:42:37Z

Nadine W.:

== Definition ==

Term referring to the movement or party which in the 18th century supported the restoration of the Stuart monarchy to the British throne after [[James II]]’s deposition at the [[Glorious Revolution]] in 1688.

Not only does the term Jacobitism refer to the forces supporting James’s return to England and to the throne, but it also maintains the claims to the throne of his descendants, i.e. his son James Francis Edward Stuart (also known as the Old Pretender or ‘James III’), as well as his grandsons Charles Edward Casimir Stuart (also known as the Young Pretender, Bonnie Prince Charlie, or ‘Charles III’) and Henry Benedict Maria Stuart (also known as the Cardinal Duke of York or ‘Henry IX’).

In the 18th century, Jacobitism not only had a political, but also a religious dimension.
James II and his descendants were Catholics refusing to convert to Protestantism. James had even tried to recatholicise England, which is why he and his descendants were excluded from thesuccession in 1688. After the [[Act of Settlement]] (1701) that finally excluded all Catholics or persons married to Catholics from the British throne, the restoration of the Stuart dynasty was virtually impossible.

== The supporters ==

Most English Jacobites were Protestants or Non-jurors (meaning that they had refused to take the Oath of Allegiance to William and Mary in 1689). Others, who had previously taken the Oath, only turned to Jacobitism in1714 as a sign of refusal of the Hanoverian succession. Jacobitism is most strongly associated with the Tories . Still, the Jacobites were only in a small majority in England.

Jacobitism was strongest in Scotland, a Catholic country and also the home of the Stuart dynasty. After the disestablishment of the Episcopalian Church at the passing of the [[Act of Union]] (1707) many former Episcopalians and those refusing to accept the Union became Jacobites. The main Scottish clans to support the Stuart dynasty were Gordon, Macdonald, and Cameron (25,000 supporters in all).

What is more, Jacobite ideas also appealed to the lower and sometimes criminal elements of society, which makes Jacobitism a form of social protest touching many gropus in society.

== Jacobite MPs ==

Until today, the question which MPs were or were not Jacobites has been a controversial topic. It has been claimed by some historians that more than a third of the Tory MPs were Jacobites (including the party leaders), while others have maintained the idea that a majority of the Tory party was clearly Hanoverian after 1714.

The main problem here lies with the definiton of the terms ‘Jacobite’ or ‘Jacobitism’, especially due to the fact that only little evidence has survived until today. When one takes into account that Jacobites were taking part in treasonable activities, and that they had to be careful not to betray their cause, it is not surprising that most of the evidence that has actually survived is often ambiguous or misleading. What is also important to notice, is the fact that in the 18th century the word ‘Jacobite’ was often used as a smearword to discredit political opponents. This can make it difficult to judge nowadays.

While some historians believe that ‘once a Jacobite always a Jacobite’, others claim that most of the time sympathies changed depending on the current political mood and circumstances. A politician could consequently have multiple reasons to favour Jacobitism: be it because the Jacobites were one of the very few existing oppositional groups, or be it to use them to achieve one’s personal political aims.

== The [[Jacobite risings]] ==

Due to the relatively small number of supporters, it is not surprising that the Jacobites were most active in times of war, when the country was weakened and when there were foreign powers (especially Catholic and absolutistic France where the Pretender was in exile) to support its cause. However, after the death of Louis XIV the Jacobites lost ground in France, and – under political and military pressure from England – James Edward even had to leave his exile and relocate to Avignon.

In the course of the century, there were four main Jacobite risings in order to reinstitute the Stuart dynasty to the throne:1708, 1715, 1719, and 1745.

In 1708, responding to the Scottish discontent at the passing of the Act of Union, [[James Edward]] (who was finally 18) and his fleet tried to land at the Scottish coast. However, his undertaking was crossed by English intelligence and strategic slips on the part of the invaders, and thus the fleet had to return to its French exile.

In 1715, after the death of Queen Anne, the Jacobitites again tried to seize the crown. But her death and the arrival of George I came too sudden for proper preparations. Subsequently, George I chose Whig ministers. They instantly impeached the leading Tories such as Bolingbroke and the Duke of Ormonde, who had hoped for a coup d’état and now had to flee to France. Again, the British troops (supported by the Dutch army) managed to fight back the invading troops.

In 1719, another Jacobite expedition, this time escorted by Spanish forces, reached Scotland. However, it got little support and the Jacobites were soon defeated.

1745 marked the last important Jacobite rebellion. Charles Edward and his brother Henry landed in Scotland, and in an at first successful campaign even took Edinburgh. But Jacobitism was largely defended as a decisive political force after the retreat from Derby by the troops of the Young Pretender and their subsequent defeat at Culloden in 1746.
In all these rebellions, it became clear that Scotland was central to Jacobitism, and especially in 1715 and 1745, when few Englishmen supported the rebellions and it were the Scots who battled for the Stuarts.

== The “real” Royal family ==

Still today, there is a group of Jacobites maintaining the view that only the descendants of James II have a legitimate claim to the throne. According to them, the succession to the throne is today represented by Duke Francis of Bavaria.

For detailed information see www.jacobite.ca.

'''Sources'''

Arnold-Baker, Charles. ''The Companion to British History''. Tunbridge Wells: Longross, 1996.

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). ''The Oxford Companion to British History''. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

Kluxen, Kurt. ''Geschichte Englands''. Kröner: Stuttgart, 1968.

www.jacobite.ca

Jacobitism

2009-10-28T13:57:12Z

Nadine W.: Created page with 'work in progress'

work in progress

Bill of Rights

2009-05-22T14:19:37Z

Nadine W.:

Passed by Parliament in December 1689, the Bill of Rights gave statutory force to the Declaration of Rights

The Declaration of Rights, drawn up by the Convention in February 1689, was presented to Mary and [[William of Orange]] in the Banqueting Hall at Whitehall, and consequently fixed in the Bill of Rights. The Declaration gave an account of the misdeeds of [[James II]], begged Mary and William to accept the crown, and laid down an Oath of Allegiance to the new monarchs.

The Bill of Rights itself closely followed the Declaration of Rights in its stipulation of ancient rights, and the recent abuses of the royal prerogatives by James II.

The Bill begins by stating that the [[Houses of Parliament]] “assembled at Westminster, lawfully, fully and freely representing all the estates of the people of this realm” (http://avalon.law.yale.edu/17th_century/england.asp). It then presents the accusations against James II and argues that James's abdication was due to the fact that he had “endeavour[ed] to subvert and extirpate the Protestant religion and the laws and liberties of this kingdom” (ibd.).

This is followed by a declaration of Parliament’s “ancient rights and liberties” (ibd.). Some of these propositions (which also relate directly to the accusations made against James II) are that

- the suspending and execution of laws without parliamentary consent is illegal

- levying money (e.g. ship money) by the monarch without parliamentary consent is illegal

- the subjects are entitled to petition the crown

- the existence of a standing army in times of peace without parliamentary consent is illegal

- parliamentary elections should be free

- freedom of speech, debates, and proceedings in Parliament should not be questioned in any court outside Parliament

- parliament should be held frequently

It is enacted that, although Mary and William are to be joint rulers after accepting the crown, “his Highness the prince of Orange (whom it hath pleased Almighty God to make the glorious instrument of delivering this kingdom from popery and arbitrary power)” (ibd.) alone ist to exercise all royal functions in their joint names.

However, the question of any contractual character the crown might possess is avoided. The succession is stated to lie in the heirs of the Protestant Mary, and then her younger sister Anne. In addition, the Bill stipulates that no papist (i.e. a person of Catholic faith), or person married to one, can become king of England.

The royal prerogative to dispense with law in specific instances is to become subject to statutory sanction; and Parliament claims the right to override a royal pardon. This received statutory recognition through the [[Act of Settlement]] (1701).

Primary source:

http://avalon.law.yale.edu/17th_century/england.asp

Secondary sources:

Arnold-Baker, Charles. The companion to British history. Longcross, 1996

Ashley, Maurice. ''England in the seventeenth century''. Penguin Books: Harmondsworth, 1970.

Clarendon Code

2009-05-22T12:27:03Z

Nadine W.:

A set of laws against Puritans named after the Chancellor Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon.

The Clarendon Code comprises four statutes, the Corporation Act (1661), the Act of Uniformity (1662), the Conventicle Act (1664), and the Five Mile Act (1665). These were passed after the Restoration of [[Charles II]] and re-established the Church of England as state religion.
Although named after the Earl of Clarendon, the Code is said to represent the principles, interests, and vindictiveness of the Anglican majority in Parliament rather than the judgement of the Earl himself. The Anglican gentry strongly believed that the Code would protect them from a Puritan dictatorship they had experienced during the Commonwealth period.
The passing of the Clarendon Code naturally constituted a huge disappointment for all those (e.g. the [[Presbyterians]]) who had helped to restore the king to the throne and who had hoped that, in return, in any religious settlement concessions would be made to their point of view.

In 1972, Charles II, one of the opponents of the Code, tried to suspend the statutes by issuing a [[Declaration of Indulgence]].

== Corporation Act (1661) ==

The Corporation Act of December 1661 excluded all those from holding public office in municipal bodies who refused to renounce the Solemn league and Covenant (which held true for most Presbyterians), to take the sacraments according to the rites of the [[Church of England]] (which applied to all Catholics and some nonconformists), or to swear not to resist the king (which applied to the republican groups). This piece of legislation weighted the scales in borough elections heavily in favour of the royalists, and was not repealed until 1828.

== Act of Uniformity (1662) ==

The Act of Uniformity of May 1662 required all clergymen to have episcopal ordination and to give a declaration of consent and assent to the ''Book of Common Prayer'' (a revised version was promulgated in April). Furthermore, school and university teachers were required to conform to the liturgy contained in it.
Some 2,000 mostly Presbyterian priests, who did not assent the new liturgy, were forced to give up their living.

== Conventicle Act (1664) ==

The Conventicle Act prohibited and penalized all religious meetings outside church with more than five persons present and those services not conducted according to the ''Book of Common Prayer''. The Act aimed mostly at the clergymen ejected by the Act of Uniformity, because it was thought that their meeting places were likely centres for plotting against the restored king.
The Act was at first strongly imposed, and entailed a great deal of fines, imprisonments and transportations, but was later ignored. It expired in 1668, was replaced by a laxer act in 1670, and finally replaced by the [[Toleration Act]] (1689).

== Five Mile Act (1665) ==

The Five Mile Act banned dissenting ministers from corporate towns. Nonconformist clergymen and schoolmasters were banned from living within 5 miles or even visiting any place (city or parliamentary borough) where they had formerly officiated.
Excepted were those clergymen who took an oath of non-resistance and declared not to try to alter the government in church or state. Due to this loose framework, the statute was almost impossible to implement and only few prosecutions took place.
However, the Act deprived the dissenting congregations of their ministers and made it hard for dissenters to get acceptable religious ministrations, because those were mostly in town. This is why the area near modern Birmingham, which happened to be more than 5 miles from any of the places covered by the Act, became the focus of midland nonconformity.

Sources:

Arnold-Baker, Charles. The companion to British history. Longcross, 1996

Ashley, Maurice. ''England in the seventeenth century''. Penguin Books: Harmondsworth, 1970.

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). ''The Oxford companion to British history''. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

Clarendon Code

2009-05-22T12:25:48Z

Nadine W.:

A set of laws against Puritans named after the Chancellor Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon.

The Clarendon Code comprises four statutes, the Corporation Act (1661), the Act of Uniformity (1662), the Conventicle Act (1664), and the Five Mile Act (1665). These were passed after the Restoration of [[Charles II]] and re-established the Church of England as state religion.
Although named after the Earl of Clarendon, the Code is said to represent the principles, interests, and vindictiveness of the Anglican majority in Parliament rather than the judgement of the Earl himself. The Anglican gentry strongly believed that the Code would protect them from a Puritan dictatorship they had experienced during the Commonwealth period.
The passing of the Clarendon Code naturally constituted a huge disappointment for all those (e.g. the [[Presbyterians]]) who had helped to restore the king to the throne and who had hoped that, in return, in any religious settlement concessions would be made to their point of view.

In 1972, Charles II, one of the opponents of the Code, tried to suspend the statutes by issuing a [[Declaration of Indulgence]].

== Corporation Act (1661) ==

The Corporation Act of December 1661 excluded all those from holding public office in municipal bodies who refused to renounce the Solemn league and Covenant (which held true for most Presbyterians), to take the sacraments according to the rites of the [[Church of England]] (which applied to all Catholics and some nonconformists), or to swear not to resist the king (which applied to the republican groups). This piece of legislation weighted the scales in borough elections heavily in favour of the royalists, and was not repealed until 1828.

== Act of Uniformity (1662) ==

The Act of Uniformity of May 1662 required all clergymen to have episcopal ordination and to give a declaration of consent and assent to the ''Book of Common Prayer'' (a revised version was promulgated in April). Furthermore, school and university teachers were required to conform to the liturgy contained in it.
Some 2,000 mostly Presbyterian priests, who did not assent the new liturgy, were forced to give up their living.

== Conventicle Act (1664) ==

The Conventicle Act prohibited and penalized all religious meetings outside church with more than five persons present and those services not conducted according to the ''Book of Common Prayer''. The Act aimed mostly at the clergymen ejected by the Act of Uniformity, because it was thought that their meeting places were likely centres for plotting against the restored king.
The Act was at first strongly imposed, and entailed a great deal of fines, imprisonments and transportations, but was later ignored. It expired in 1668, was replaced by a laxer act in 1670, and finally replaced by the [[Toleration Act]] (1689).

== Five Mile Act (1665) ==

The Five Mile Act banned dissenting ministers from corporate towns. Nonconformist clergymen and schoolmasters were banned from living within 5 miles or even visiting any place (city or parliamentary borough) where they had formerly officiated.
Excepted were those clergymen who took an oath of non-resistance and declared not to try to alter the government in church or state. Due to this loose framework, the statute was almost impossible to implement and only few prosecutions took place.
However, the Act deprived the dissenting congregations of their ministers and made it hard for dissenters to get acceptable religious ministrations, because those were mostly in town. This is why the area near modern Birmingham, which it happened to be more than 5 miles from any of the places covered by the Act, became the focus of midland nonconformity.

Sources:

Arnold-Baker, Charles. The companion to British history. Longcross, 1996

Ashley, Maurice. ''England in the seventeenth century''. Penguin Books: Harmondsworth, 1970.

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). ''The Oxford companion to British history''. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

Clarendon Code

2009-05-21T14:43:21Z

Nadine W.:

Exclusion Crisis

2009-05-21T13:05:57Z

Nadine W.:

Period of intense political struggle 1679 – 1681 for the succession to the English throne

In the late 1670s, the issue of royal succession raised public concerns and anxieties. [[Charles II]], although fathering many illegitimate children, had produced no legitimate heirs. According to the laws of primogeniture and dynasty, the crown was then to pass to Charles’s younger brother James, duke of York (the later [[James II]]).

However, James was a converted Catholic, which had already been publicly known since 1673. His religious denomination provoked the widespread fear among people that once king, James would introduce a Catholic absolutist monarchy modelled on the French system under [[Louis XIV]]. These fears and apprehensions led to the attempts to prevent James from succeeding to the English throne, commonly known as the Exclusion crisis.

The beginning of the actual crisis is usually dated back to 1678, when Titus Oates fabricated the so-called [[Popish Plot]]. In September 1678, Oates, a former Jesuit novice who had converted to the Catholic faith in 1677, unveiled a supposed Jesuit conspiracy to overthrow the Protestant establishment and to assassinate Charles II. According to Oates, the French were about to invade England via Ireland and place James on the throne. Evidence supporting Oates’s claim was soon discovered, and the death of Sir Edmund Bury Godfrey (the magistrate before whom Oates had presented his allegations) gave further credibility to the plot, and led to another wave of mass hysteria throughout the country, fuelled by a deep-seated fear of ‘popery and arbitrary government’ (which was associated with tyranny) in Stuart England.

In the three parliaments called between 1679 and 1681 discontented Whigs (led by the Earl of Shaftesbury) tried to use their majority in the House of Commons to promote measures excluding James from succession to the throne. However, all their bills were defeated by the king using his royal prerogatives. Charles II refused to consent and on 28 March 1681 managed to dissolve Parliament, and Parliament was not summoned until 1685. Charles’s resolute position was strengthened by an agreement with France, by which the king received £385,000 over three years (over which he could dispose without having to summon Parliament for taxes).
The exclusionist movement itself lost many of its supporters as fears of a new civil war increased because of the radical tactics (mass petitions, demonstrations) that were used. Moreover, the refusal of Charles II to summon Parliament took away its platform.

The exclusionists’ campaign against James highlighted the conflict between crown and Parliament since the 1660s. It can be seen as a radical move by Parliament to dictate royal succession which contrasts with conventional assumptions about the divine nature of monarchical rule.

Sources:

Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). The Oxford companion to British history. Oxford: University Press, 1997.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/glorious_revolution_01.shtml

Exclusion Crisis

2009-05-21T13:04:17Z

Nadine W.:

Period of intense political struggle 1679 – 1681 for the succession to the English throne

In the late 1670s, the issue of royal succession raised public concerns and anxieties. [[Charles II]], although fathering many illegitimate children, had produced no legitimate heirs. According to the laws of primogeniture and dynasty, the crown was then to pass to Charles’s younger brother James, duke of York (the later [[James II]]).

However, James was a converted Catholic, which had already been publicly known since 1673. His religious denomination provoked the widespread fear among people that once king, James would introduce a Catholic absolutist monarchy modelled on the French system under [[Louis XIV]]. These fears and apprehensions led to the attempts to prevent James from succeeding to the English throne, commonly known as the Exclusion crisis.

The beginning of the actual crisis is usually dated back to 1678, when Titus Oates fabricated the so-called [[Popish Plot]]. In September 1678, Oates, a former Jesuit novice who had converted to the Catholic faith in 1677, unveiled a supposed Jesuit conspiracy to overthrow the Protestant establishment and to assassinate Charles II. According to Oates, the French were about to invade England via Ireland and place James on the throne. Evidence supporting Oates’s claim was soon discovered, and the death of Sir Edmund Bury Godfrey (the magistrate before whom Oates had presented his allegations) gave further credibility to the plot, and led to another wave of mass hysteria throughout the country, fuelled by a deep-seated fear of ‘popery and arbitrary government’ (which was associated with tyranny) in Stuart England.

In the three parliaments called between 1679 and 1681 discontented Whigs (led by the Earl of Shaftesbury) tried to use their majority in the House of Commons to promote measures excluding James from succession to the throne. However, all their bills were defeated by the king using his royal prerogatives. Charles II refused to consent and on 28 March 1681 managed to dissolve Parliament, and Parliament was not summoned until 1685. Charles’s resolute position was strengthened by an agreement with France, by which the king received £385,000 over three years (over which he could dispose without having to summon Parliament for taxes).
The exclusionist movement itself lost many of its supporters as fears of a new civil war increased because of the radical tactics (mass petitions, demonstrations) that were used. Moreover, the refusal of Charles II to summon Parliament took away its platform.

The exclusionists’ campaign against James highlighted the conflict between crown and Parliament since the 1660s. It can be seen as a radical move by Parliament to dictate royal succession which contrasts with conventional assumptions about the divine nature of monarchical rule.

Sources:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/glorious_revolution_01.shtml
Cannon, John Ashton (ed.). The Oxford companion to British history. Oxford: University Press, 1997.