British Culture - User contributions [en]

George Bernard Shaw

2011-01-19T12:58:32Z

Nils Müller:

George Bernard Shaw was a highly influential 19th-century dramatist, novelist, and music critic. He was born in Dublin in 1856 and died in Hertfordshire in 1950.

== Life ==

Having spent a somewhat unfulfilled youth in Ireland, Shaw moved to London in 1876. He had started writing a few years earlier, but was unable to have any of his first five novels published.
In 1884 he joined the Fabian Society, for which he wrote many well-known socialist essays. Furthermore, he began to make a name for himself by writing music critiques for ''Star Magazine'' in 1888, as well as drama critiques for the ''Saturday Review'' in 1895. Towards the turn of the century, he then began to focus more intently on writing plays, with which he ultimately made his name. In turn, this led to his earlier works becoming more widely known, too.

Shaw was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1925.

== Significance for 19th-century British culture ==

Though he hardly ever addressed them explicitly, Shaw indubitably touches upon many cultural issues of the 19th century in his plays. He reflects upon topics such as socialism, class struggle, family structures, prostitution, and vaccination. As his publications cover such a wide variety of subject matter and a lengthy time span, he is said to have influenced the mentality of several generations.

Some of his best-known works:

''[[Mrs Warren's Profession]]'' (1898)

''Arms and the Man'' (1898)

''Man and Superman'' (1903)

''Pygmalion'' (1916)

''The Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism'' (1928)

== Sources ==

Encyclopaedia Britannica: ''George Bernard Shaw''. Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc: 1976.

Magnusson, Magnus (Ed): ''Chambers Biographical Dictionary.'' 5th ed. Edinburgh: W&R Chambers, 1990.

Mrs Warren's Profession

2011-01-18T16:20:10Z

Nils Müller:

'''Mrs Warren's Profession''' is a play by [[George Bernard Shaw]], written in 1893. It was denied public performance until 1925 because it was considered immoral. One of the plays major themes is the role of women in Victorian society.

== Plot Summary ==

Mrs Warren is a brothel owner, who manages a chain of brothels in the capitals of Europe. Her daughter, Vivie, who studies at Cambridge University, pursues a career in business. Vivie does not know about her mother's profession. It is also uncertain who is Vivie's father. When Vivie finds out that her mother's profession is prostitution she is shocked at first, but when Mrs Warren tells her about her impoverished youth, Vivie develops an understanding for her mother's situation and they reconcile. However, when Vivie finds out that, despite her mother's wealth, the business is still in operation, she decides to leave and live her own life, rejecting her admirers at the same time.

== Double Standard and Consequences of Poverty in Victorian Society ==

The play deals with the double standard concerning morality in Victorian society. Men were expected to be experienced lovers whereas women should not have any sexual experience before marriage. Mrs Warren's profession as a brothel owner and prostitute is regarded as immoral. However, the fact that her brothels are successful and have made her a fortune shows that it was not unusual for men to find sexual fulfilment in brothels. On the other hand, Mrs Warren's profession is presented as an economic necessity. She had to decide whether to live an honourable life according to Victorian standards, which meant poverty, or to make money by pursuing an immoral profession. Geisen refers to the circumstances in Victorian society that forced her to decide between poverty and wealth and at the same time between morality and immorality. "Mrs Warren's Entscheidung sich durch die Prostitution aus ihrer subjektiv unerträglichen materiellen Not zu befreien, ist nicht unmoralischer als die Weigerung der Gesellschaft, Bedingungen zu schaffen, die eine solche Entscheidung notwendig machen." (Geisen 1984, p 193) The fact that Mrs Warren decides to continue her business despite her wealth can be understood from a capitalist poin of view. It shows that capitalist ideas and Victorian morality are incompatible. "Mrs Warren zieht nicht das nackte Überleben der Moral vor [...], sondern zieht das kapitalistische Dogma des »getting on« der Moral vor und enthüllt damit die Unverträglichkeit dieses Wirtschaftssystems mit dem Moralbegriff."(ibid, p 194)

== Sources ==

Ousby, Ian, ed. ''The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English''. Cambridge: CUP, 1993
Shaw, George Bernard. ''Mrs Warren's Profession''. Ed. Herbert Geisen. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1984.

Mrs Warren's Profession

2011-01-18T16:19:39Z

Nils Müller: Created page with ''''Mrs Warren's Profession''' is a play by George Bernard Shaw, written in 1893. It was denied public performance until 1925 because it was considered immoral. One of the pla…'

'''Mrs Warren's Profession''' is a play by [[George Bernard Shaw]], written in 1893. It was denied public performance until 1925 because it was considered immoral. One of the plays major themes is the role of women in Victorian society.

== Plot Summary ==

Mrs Warren is a brothel owner, who manages a chain of brothels in the capitals of Europe. Her daughter, Vivie, who studies at Cambridge University, pursues a career in business. Vivie does not know about her mother's profession. It is also uncertain who is Vivie's father. When Vivie finds out that her mother's profession is prostitution she is shocked at first, but when Mrs Warren tells her about her impoverished youth, Vivie develops an understanding for her mother's situation and they reconcile. However, when Vivie finds out that, despite her mother's wealth, the business is still in operation, she decides to leave and live her own life, rejecting her admirers at the same time.

== Double Standard and Consequences of Poverty in Victorian Society ==

The play deals with the double standard concerning morality in Victorian society. Men were expected to be experienced lovers whereas women should not have any sexual experience before marriage. Mrs Warren's profession as a brothel owner and prostitute is regarded as immoral. However, the fact that her brothels are successful and have made her a fortune shows that it was not unusual for men to find sexual fulfilment in brothels. On the other hand, Mrs Warren's profession is presented as an economic necessity. She had to decide whether to live an honourable life according to Victorian standards, which meant poverty, or to make money by pursuing an immoral profession. Geisen refers to the circumstances in Victorian society that forced her to decide between poverty and wealth and at the same time between morality and immorality. "Mrs Warren's Entscheidung sich durch die Prostitution aus ihrer subjektiv unerträglichen materiellen Not zu befreien, ist nicht unmoralischer als die Weigerung der Gesellschaft, Bedingungen zu schaffen, die eine solche Entscheidung notwendig machen." (Geisen 1984, p 193) The fact that Mrs Warren decides to continue her business despite her wealth can be understood from a capitalist poin of view. It shows that capitalist ideas and Victorian morality are incompatible. "Mrs Warren zieht nicht das nackte Überleben der Moral vor [...], sondern zieht das kapitalistische Dogma des »getting on« der Moral vor und enthüllt damit die Unverträglichkeit dieses Wirtschaftssystems mit dem Moralbegriff."(ibid, p 194)

Sources
Ousby, Ian, ed. ''The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English''. Cambridge: CUP, 1993
Shaw, George Bernard. ''Mrs Warren's Profession''. Ed. Herbert Geisen. Stuttgart: Reclam, 1984.

Rugby

2010-11-11T11:40:22Z

Nils Müller:

'''Rugby football''' (commonly referred to as rugby) is a contact team sport played with an oval ball, which originated in England in the 19th century and is played worldwide nowadays. The name rugby refers to Rugby School, a boarding school in Rugby, Warwickshire, where the game was first played.

== History ==
According to a legend, rugby football was invented by William Webb Ellis, "who with a fine disregard of the rules of football as played in his time first took the ball in his arms and ran with it, thus originating the distinctive feature of the rugby game. AD 1823"[1] Although Webb Ellis certainly existed, there is no evidence that the incident described above really took place. During the early and mid-19th century no set rules for neither football nor rugby existed. Many public schools, where the games were mainly played, had their own set of rules, which was passed on orally. The first written set of rules was compiled in 1845 at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire. Rugby rules allowed handling the ball and types of tackling, which were outlawed at other schools. The pupils of the different schools brought widely differing rules to university, which caused discord and led to the evolvement of two different codes of football, rugby football and association football. The Football Association (FA), which used the rules played at Cambridge University, was formed in 1863. Eight years later, on 26 January 1871, the Rugby Football Union (RFU) was founded by 21 clubs which disagreed with the rules of association football. Since then, several new sports such as American Football, Canadian Football, Australian Football, Gaelic Football and Rugby League have evolved.

[1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml

== Main Rules ==
A game of rugby, according to the rules of the Rugby Football Union, consists of two teams of 15 players each. A game is played over 80 mins in two 40 mins halves. The main aim of the game is to score points, which can be done through several ways. Five points are awarded for a try, which is scored by carrying the oval rugby ball into the opponent's in-goal area and grounding it there. A try is followed by a conversion, which means the attempt of kicking the ball through the goal posts. A conversion is worth two points. Other ways of scoring include penalty kicks and drop goals, which are worth three points each. In rugby, the ball can only be carried or kicked forward. Forward passing is not allowed. A tackle is made by holding the ball carrier and taking him to the ground safely. Once the ball carrier is off his feet, he must release the ball and the opposing teams can contest for possession.

== Codes ==
There are two types of rugby nowadays, rugby union and rugby league. Rugby union is the more popular of the two codes. The rugby union world cup is one of the largest sporting events in the world. Rugby league evolved as an own sport from 1895 onwards, when northern English rugby clubs resigned from the Rugby Football Union to form the Northern Rugby Union which became the Rugby Football League in 1922. The northern clubs, which consisted mainly of working class players, were dissatisfied with the RFU's rejection of professionalism. This disagreement has led to the existence of two different codes of rugby football with different sets of rules.
Other variants of rugby include rugby sevens, rugby tens, beach rugby, tag rugby, touch rugby, flag rugby (all variations of rugby union) and many more variations of rugby league.

== Sources ==
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml

Richards, Huw. ''A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union''. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing, 2006

Rugby

2010-11-10T23:46:10Z

Nils Müller: /* Codes */

'''Rugby football''' (commonly referred to as rugby) is a contact team sport played with an oval ball, which originated in England in the 19th century and is played worldwide nowadays. The name rugby comes from Rugby School, a boarding school in Rugby, Warwickshire, where the game was first played.

== History ==
According to a legend, rugby football was invented by William Webb Ellis, "who with a fine disregard of the rules of football as played in his time first took the ball in his arms and ran with it, thus originating the distinctive feature of the rugby game. AD 1823"[1] Although Webb Ellis certainly existed, there is no evidence that the incident described above really took place. During the early and mid-19th century no set rules for neither football nor rugby existed. Many public schools, where the games were mainly played, had their own set of rules, which was passed on orally. The first written set of rules was compiled in 1845 at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire. Rugby rules allowed handling the ball and types of tackling, which were outlawed at other schools. The pupils of the different schools brought widely differing rules to university, which caused discord and led to the evolvement of two different codes of football, rugby football and association football. The Football Association (FA), which used the rules played at Cambridge University, was formed in 1863. Eight years later, on 26 January 1871, the Rugby Football Union (RFU) was founded by 21 clubs which disagreed with the rules of association football. Since then, several new sports such as American Football, Canadian Football, Australian Football, Gaelic Football and Rugby League have evolved.

[1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml

== Main Rules ==
A game of rugby, according to the rules of the Rugby Football Union, consists of two teams of 15 players each. A game is played over 80 mins in two 40 mins halves. The main aim of the game is to score points, which can be done through several ways. Five points are awarded for a try, which is scored by carrying the oval rugby ball into the opponent's in-goal area and grounding it there. A try is followed by a conversion, which means the attempt of kicking the ball through the goal posts. A conversion is worth two points. Other ways of scoring include penalty kicks and drop goals, which are worth three points each. In rugby, the ball can only be carried or kicked forward. Forward passing is not allowed. A tackle is made by holding the ball carrier and taking him to the ground safely. Once the ball carrier is off his feet, he must release the ball and the opposing teams can contest for possession.

== Codes ==
There are two types of rugby nowadays, rugby union and rugby league. Rugby union is the more popular of the two codes. The rugby union world cup is one of the largest sporting events in the world. Rugby league evolved as an own sport from 1895 onwards, when northern English rugby clubs resigned from the Rugby Football Union to form the Northern Rugby Union which became the Rugby Football League in 1922. The northern clubs, which consisted mainly of working class players, were dissatisfied with the RFU's rejection of professionalism. This disagreement has led to the existence of two different codes of rugby football with different sets of rules.
Other variants of rugby include rugby sevens, rugby tens, beach rugby, tag rugby, touch rugby, flag rugby (all variations of rugby union) and many more variations of rugby league.

== Sources ==
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml

Richards, Huw. ''A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union''. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing, 2006

Rugby

2010-11-10T23:42:41Z

Nils Müller: /* History */

'''Rugby football''' (commonly referred to as rugby) is a contact team sport played with an oval ball, which originated in England in the 19th century and is played worldwide nowadays. The name rugby comes from Rugby School, a boarding school in Rugby, Warwickshire, where the game was first played.

== History ==
According to a legend, rugby football was invented by William Webb Ellis, "who with a fine disregard of the rules of football as played in his time first took the ball in his arms and ran with it, thus originating the distinctive feature of the rugby game. AD 1823"[1] Although Webb Ellis certainly existed, there is no evidence that the incident described above really took place. During the early and mid-19th century no set rules for neither football nor rugby existed. Many public schools, where the games were mainly played, had their own set of rules, which was passed on orally. The first written set of rules was compiled in 1845 at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire. Rugby rules allowed handling the ball and types of tackling, which were outlawed at other schools. The pupils of the different schools brought widely differing rules to university, which caused discord and led to the evolvement of two different codes of football, rugby football and association football. The Football Association (FA), which used the rules played at Cambridge University, was formed in 1863. Eight years later, on 26 January 1871, the Rugby Football Union (RFU) was founded by 21 clubs which disagreed with the rules of association football. Since then, several new sports such as American Football, Canadian Football, Australian Football, Gaelic Football and Rugby League have evolved.

[1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml

== Main Rules ==
A game of rugby, according to the rules of the Rugby Football Union, consists of two teams of 15 players each. A game is played over 80 mins in two 40 mins halves. The main aim of the game is to score points, which can be done through several ways. Five points are awarded for a try, which is scored by carrying the oval rugby ball into the opponent's in-goal area and grounding it there. A try is followed by a conversion, which means the attempt of kicking the ball through the goal posts. A conversion is worth two points. Other ways of scoring include penalty kicks and drop goals, which are worth three points each. In rugby, the ball can only be carried or kicked forward. Forward passing is not allowed. A tackle is made by holding the ball carrier and taking him to the ground safely. Once the ball carrier is off his feet, he must release the ball and the opposing teams can contest for possession.

== Codes ==
There are two types of rugby nowadays, rugby union and rugby league. Rugby union is the more popular code nowadays. The rugby union world cup is one of the largest sporting events in the world. Rugby league evolved as an own sport from 1895 onwards, when northern English rugby clubs resigned from the Rugby Football Union to form the Northern Rugby Union which became the Rugby Football League in 1922. The northern clubs, which consisted mainly of working class players, were dissatisfied with the RFU's rejection of professionalism. This disagreement has led to the existence of two different codes of rugby football with different sets of rules.
Other variants of rugby include rugby sevens, rugby tens, beach rugby, tag rugby, touch rugby, flag rugby (all variations of rugby union) and many more variations of rugby league.

== Sources ==
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml

Richards, Huw. ''A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union''. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing, 2006

Rugby

2010-11-10T22:40:14Z

Nils Müller:

'''Rugby football''' (commonly referred to as rugby) is a contact team sport played with an oval ball, which originated in England in the 19th century and is played worldwide nowadays. The name rugby comes from Rugby School, a boarding school in Rugby, Warwickshire, where the game was first played.

== History ==
According to a legend, rugby football was invented by William Webb Ellis, "who with a fine disregard of the rules of football as played in his time first took the ball in his arms and ran with it, thus originating the distinctive feature of the rugby game. AD 1823"[1] Although Webb Ellis certainly existed, there is no evidence that the incident described above really took place. During the early and mid-19th century no set rules for neither football nor rugby existed. Many public schools, where the games were mainly played, had there own set of rules, which was passed on orally. The first written set of rules was compiled in 1845 at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire. Rugby rules allowed handling the ball and types of tackling, which were outlawed at other schools. The pupils of the different schools brought widely differing rules to university, which caused discord and led to the evolvement of two different codes of football, rugby football and association football. The Football Association (FA), which used the rules played at Cambridge University, was formed in 1863. Eight years later, on 26 January 1871, the Rugby Football Union (RFU) was founded by 21 clubs which disagreed with the rules of association football. Since then, several new sports such as American Football, Canadian Football, Australian Football, Gaelic Football and Rugby League have evolved.

[1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml

== Main Rules ==
A game of rugby, according to the rules of the Rugby Football Union, consists of two teams of 15 players each. A game is played over 80 mins in two 40 mins halves. The main aim of the game is to score points, which can be done through several ways. Five points are awarded for a try, which is scored by carrying the oval rugby ball into the opponent's in-goal area and grounding it there. A try is followed by a conversion, which means the attempt of kicking the ball through the goal posts. A conversion is worth two points. Other ways of scoring include penalty kicks and drop goals, which are worth three points each. In rugby, the ball can only be carried or kicked forward. Forward passing is not allowed. A tackle is made by holding the ball carrier and taking him to the ground safely. Once the ball carrier is off his feet, he must release the ball and the opposing teams can contest for possession.

== Codes ==
There are two types of rugby nowadays, rugby union and rugby league. Rugby union is the more popular code nowadays. The rugby union world cup is one of the largest sporting events in the world. Rugby league evolved as an own sport from 1895 onwards, when northern English rugby clubs resigned from the Rugby Football Union to form the Northern Rugby Union which became the Rugby Football League in 1922. The northern clubs, which consisted mainly of working class players, were dissatisfied with the RFU's rejection of professionalism. This disagreement has led to the existence of two different codes of rugby football with different sets of rules.
Other variants of rugby include rugby sevens, rugby tens, beach rugby, tag rugby, touch rugby, flag rugby (all variations of rugby union) and many more variations of rugby league.

== Sources ==
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml

Richards, Huw. ''A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union''. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing, 2006

Rugby

2010-11-10T21:35:18Z

Nils Müller: Created page with ''''Rugby football''' (commonly referred to as rugby) is a contact team sport, which originated in England in the 19th century and is played worldwide nowadays. The name rugby co…'

'''Rugby football''' (commonly referred to as rugby) is a contact team sport, which originated in England in the 19th century and is played worldwide nowadays. The name rugby comes from Rugby School, a boarding school in Rugby, Warwickshire, where the game was first played.
== History ==
According to a legend, rugby football was invented by William Webb Ellis, "who with a fine disregard of the rules of football as played in his time first took the ball in his arms and ran with it, thus originating the distinctive feature of the rugby game. AD 1823"[1] Although Webb Ellis certainly existed, there is no evidence that the incident described above really took place. During the early and mid-19th century no set rules for neither football nor rugby existed. Many public schools, where the games were mainly played, had there own set of rules, which was passed on orally. The first written set of rules was compiled in 1845 at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire. Rugby rules allowed handling the ball and types of tackling, which were outlawed at other schools. The pupils of the different schools brought widely differing rules to university, which caused discord and led to the evolvement of two different codes of football, rugby football and association football. The Football Association (FA), which used the rules played at Cambridge University, was formed in 1863. Eight years later, on 26 January 1871, the Rugby Football Union (RFU) was founded by 21 clubs which disagreed with the rules of association football. Since then, several new codes such as American Football, Canadian Football, Australian Football, Gaelic Football and Rugby League have evolved.

[1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml
== Sources ==
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/sport_01.shtml

Richards, Huw. ''A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union''. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing, 2006

Jack the Ripper

2010-11-09T15:54:51Z

Nils Müller:

Pseudonym given to a serial murderer of at least five female prostitutes. The name Jack the Ripper originates from a letter which was sent to the police by a person who claimed to be the murderer himself. He was also called the "Whitechapel murderer" and "Leather Apron". Jack the Ripper was not the first serial killer, but he was probably the first to appear in a large metropolis at a time when a great part of the population had become literate and the press was a force for social change.

== The murders ==

The serial murders are some of the most famous unsolved mysteries of English crime. They were committed in or near the Whitechapel district in the East End of London between August 7 and November 10 1888. Among the victims were at least five female prostitutes, Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes and Mary Jane Kelly. Additionally, there are further murders which cannot conclusively be proven to have been committed by Jack the Ripper. It is reported that in all cases the victims’ throats were cut and the women’s bodies were professionally mutilated, so that the police had the assumption that Jack the Ripper might have had knowledge of human anatomy or even a medical background.

== Police investigation ==

During the investigation, the police received letters, a postcard and a package with one half of a human kidney by someone calling himself Jack the Ripper. The police officers were under pressure as the case was hyped and explicitly reported in the local newspapers. As a result, people started to criticise them for being incapable of arresting the murderer. A great public uproar over the police’s failure was raised against the home secretary and the London police commissioner, who resigned soon afterwards. All in all, there have been more than 30 suspects, but the murders could not be proven against any of them. Although a lot of efforts were made to trace Jack the Ripper, the case has remained unsolved until today.

== Sources ==

Gribbin, John. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite. Jack the Ripper. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.

http://www.casebook.org

http://www.jack-the-ripper.org