British Culture - User contributions [en]

Sara Ahmed

2025-02-13T19:38:01Z

Pankratz:

British-Australian independent scholar and author (* 30 August 1969). Her works center feminist and queer theory, lesbian feminism, affect studies, postcolonialism, and Black British feminism. Famous "feminist killjoy" and influenced by a Who Is Who of post-scholarship: Audre Lorde, bell hooks, Edward Said, Frantz Fanon, Michel Foucault, Heidi Mirza, Judith Butler, and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.

== Life and Education ==
Ahmed was born in Salford, England. She is of Pakistani and English descent, with a Pakistani father working as a doctor, and an English mother. Ahmed grew up in Adelaide, Australia, after her parents moved there in the 1970s. She received her first degree in English, philosophy, and history from the University of Adelaide in 1989. In 1991, she returned to the UK to complete her doctorate (awarded in 1995) at the Centre for Critical and Cultural Theory at Cardiff University.

She currently lives in the environs of a small village in Cambridgeshire with her partner Sarah Franklin and their two dogs, Poppy and Bluebell.

== Career ==
In 1994, Ahmed began working as a lecturer in Women’s Studies at Lancaster University. There, she eventually became director of Women’s Studies. She remained there until 2004, when she was elected to the Department of Media and Communications at Goldsmiths College, University of London. After a year of working as a reader in Race and Cultural Studies, she was elected to the Professorship of Race and Cultural Studies. From 2013 to 2016, she was also director of the Centre for Feminist Research, which she called a "lifeline and a shelter [...] not populated by the same old bodies" in her resignation blog post at Goldsmiths. Throughout her career, she also had visiting appointments at Cambridge University, Rutgers University, University of Sydney, and University of Adelaide.

In 2016, she resigned from her position as Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths in solidarity with the students who filed sexual harassment claims against other members of staff there. She wrote a blog post titled "Resignation" and further explained her decision to resign in protest against Goldsmiths’ failure to adequately address the issue, stating: "''Resignation is a feminist issue''". She now works as an independent scholar and researcher and continues to publish books and articles and occasionally lectures.

Her work is very much connected to her own struggles as a queer Person of Colour. The term ''feminist killjoy'' is a reference to pervasive and harmful cultural tropes such as the "angry Black woman" or the "unhappy queer". In calling herself a feminist killjoy, she wants to deconstruct Western notions of normative happiness as the ultimate goal in life and highlight the figures that interrupt such narratives. Her books titled ''The Promise of Happiness'' (2010), ''Living a Feminist Life'' (2017), and ''The Feminist Killjoy Handbook'' (2023) work through this in more detail.

== Selected Works ==
* ''Differences that Matter: Feminist Theory and Postmodernism'' (1998)
* ''Strange Encounters: Embodied Others in Post-Coloniality'' (2000)
* ''The Cultural Politics of Emotion'' (2004)
* ''Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others'' (2006)
* ''The Promise of Happiness'' (2010)
* ''On Being Included: Racism and Diversity in Institutional Life'' (2012)
* ''Willful Subjects'' (2014)
* ''Living a Feminist Life'' (2017)
* ''What’s the Use?'' (2019)
* ''Complaint!'' (2021)
* ''The Feminist Killjoy Handbook'' (2023)
* ''No Is Not a Lonely Utterance'' (forthcoming)

== Social Media ==
As an independent feminist scholar and writer, Ahmed regularly uses multiple social media platforms to blog and publish her thoughts on contemporary issues. Her Substack handle is @feministkilljoys — a nod to her research blog (feministkilljoys.com) titled feministkilljoys. She also has a personal website (saranahmed.com) with links to her articles, latest projects, upcoming lectures, and CV. You can also find her on Instagram (@feministkilljoyatwork) where she shares some of the behind-the-scenes of her scholarly work.

== Accolades ==
* Feminist and Women’s Studies Network (FWSA) Book Prize 2012, ''The Promise of Happiness'' for "ingenuity and scholarship in the fields of feminism, gender or women’s studies."
* Phenomenology Roundtable Award 2010 for "outstanding contribution to the field of phenomenological research".

== Sources ==
Ahmed, Sara. "Bio." ''Sara Ahmed'', www.saranahmed.com/bio-cv. Accessed 19 Jan. 2025.

---. "feministkilljoys." ''Feministkilljoys'', feministkilljoys.com. Accessed 19 Jan. 2025.

---. "Resignation." ''Feministkilljoys'', feministkilljoys.com/2016/05/30/resignation/. Accessed 19 Jan. 2025.

---, and Katy P. Sian. "Sara Ahmed." ''Conversations in Postcolonial Thought'', edited by Katy P. Sian, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, pp. 15-34.

Binyam, Maya. "You Pose a Problem: A Conversation with Sara Ahmed." ''The Paris Review'', 19 Jan. 2022, www.theparisreview.org/blog/2022/01/14/you-pose-a-problem-a-conversation-with-sara-ahmed/. Accessed 21 Jan. 2025.

Mehra, Nishta J. "Sara Ahmed: Notes from a Feminist Killjoy." ''Guernica'', 31 July 2017, www.guernicamag.com/sara-ahmed-the-personal-is-institutional/. Accessed 20 Jan. 2025.

Sara Ahmed

2025-01-24T10:23:37Z

Pankratz:

(Born 30 August 1969). British-Australian scholar and author. Her works center feminist and queer theory, lesbian feminism, affect studies, postcolonialism, and Black British feminism. She is also a self-proclaimed "feminist killjoy". Audre Lorde, bell hooks, Edward Said, Frantz Fanon, Michel Foucault, Heidi Mirza, Judith Butler, and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, among others, influenced and continue to influence her scholarly writing.

== Life and Education ==
Ahmed was born in Salford. She is of Pakistani and English descent, with a Pakistani father working as a doctor, and an English mother. Ahmed grew up in Adelaide, Australia after her parents moved there in the 1970s. She received her first degree in English, philosophy, and history from the University of Adelaide in 1989. In 1991, she returned to the UK to complete her doctorate (awarded in 1995) at the Centre for Critical and Cultural Theory at Cardiff University.

She currently lives in the environs of a small village in Cambridgeshire, England, with her partner Sarah Franklin and their two dogs, Poppy and Bluebell.

== Career ==
In 1994, Ahmed began working as a lecturer in Women’s Studies at Lancaster University. There, she eventually became director of Women’s Studies. She remained there until she was appointed to the'Department of Media and Communications at Goldsmiths College, University of London, in 2004. After a year of working as a reader in Race and Cultural Studies, she was elected to the Professorship of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths. From 2013 to 2016, she was also director of the Centre for Feminist Research, which she called a "lifeline and a shelter [...] not populated by the same old bodies" in her resignation blog post at Goldsmiths. Throughout her career, she also had visiting appointments at Cambridge University, Rutgers University, University of Sydney, and University of Adelaide.

In 2016, she resigned from her position as Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths in solidarity with the students who filed sexual harassment claims against other members of staff there. She wrote a blog post titled "Resignation" and further explained her decision to resign in protest against Goldsmiths’ failure to adequately address the issue, stating: "Resignation is a feminist issue". She now works as an independent scholar and researcher and continues to publish books and articles and occasionally lectures.

Her work is very much connected to her own struggles as a queer person of color. The term ''feminist killjoy'' is a reference to pervasive and harmful cultural tropes such as the "angry Black woman" or the "unhappy queer". In calling herself a feminist killjoy, she wants to deconstruct Western notions of normative happiness as the ultimate goal in life and highlight the figures that interrupt such narratives. Her books titled ''The Promise of Happiness'' (2010), ''Living a Feminist Life'' (2017), and ''The Feminist Killjoy Handbook'' (2023) work through this in more detail.

== Selected Works ==
* ''Differences that Matter: Feminist Theory and Postmodernism'' (1998)
* ''Strange Encounters: Embodied Others in Post-Coloniality'' (2000)
* ''The Cultural Politics of Emotion'' (2004)
* ''Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others'' (2006)
* ''The Promise of Happiness'' (2010)
* ''On Being Included: Racism and Diversity in Institutional Life'' (2012)
* ''Willful Subjects'' (2014)
* ''Living a Feminist Life'' (2017)
* ''What’s the Use?'' (2019)
* ''Complaint!'' (2021)
* ''The Feminist Killjoy Handbook'' (2023)
* ''No Is Not a Lonely Utterance'' (forthcoming)

== Social Media ==
As an independent scholar, Ahmed regularly uses multiple social media platforms to blog and publish her thoughts on contemporary issues. Her Substack handle is @feministkilljoys — a nod to her research blog (feministkilljoys.com) titled feministkilljoys. She also has a personal website (saranahmed.com) with links to her articles, latest projects, upcoming lectures, and CV. You can also find her on Instagram (@feministkilljoyatwork) where she shares some of the behind-the-scenes of her scholarly work.

== Accolades ==
* Feminist and Women’s Studies Network (FWSA) Book Prize 2012, ''The Promise of Happiness'' for "ingenuity and scholarship in the fields of feminism, gender or women’s studies."
* Phenomenology Roundtable Award 2010 for "outstanding contribution to the field of phenomenological research".

== Sources ==
* Ahmed, Sara. "Bio." Sara Ahmed, www.saranahmed.com/bio-cv. Accessed 19 Jan. 2025.
* - - -. "feministkilljoys." ''Feministkilljoys'', feministkilljoys.com. Accessed 19 Jan. 2025.
* - - -. "Resignation." ''Feministkilljoys'', feministkilljoys.com/2016/05/30/resignation/. Accessed 19 Jan. 2025.
* Ahmed, Sara, and Katy P. Sian. "Sara Ahmed." ''Conversations in Postcolonial Thought'', edited by Katy P. Sian, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, pp. 15-34.
* Binyam, Maya. "You Pose a Problem: A Conversation with Sara Ahmed." ''The Paris Review'', 19 Jan. 2022, www.theparisreview.org/blog/2022/01/14/you-pose-a-problem-a-conversation-with-sara-ahmed/. Accessed 21 Jan. 2025.
* Mehra, Nishta J. "Sara Ahmed: Notes from a Feminist Killjoy." ''Guernica'', 31 July 2017, www.guernicamag.com/sara-ahmed-the-personal-is-institutional/. Accessed 20 Jan. 2025.

Sara Ahmed

2025-01-24T10:23:06Z

Pankratz:

(Born 30 August 1969). British-Australian scholar and author. Her works center feminist and queer theory, lesbian feminism, affect studies, postcolonialism, and Black British feminism. She is also a self-proclaimed "feminist killjoy". Audre Lorde, bell hooks, Edward Said, Frantz Fanon, Michel Foucault, [[Heidi Mirza]], Judith Butler, and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, among others, influenced and continue to influence her scholarly writing.

== Life and Education ==
Ahmed was born in [[Salford]]. She is of Pakistani and English descent, with a Pakistani father working as a doctor, and an English mother. Ahmed grew up in Adelaide, Australia after her parents moved there in the 1970s. She received her first degree in English, philosophy, and history from the University of Adelaide in 1989. In 1991, she returned to the UK to complete her doctorate (awarded in 1995) at the Centre for Critical and Cultural Theory at Cardiff University.

She currently lives in the environs of a small village in Cambridgeshire, England, with her partner Sarah Franklin and their two dogs, Poppy and Bluebell.

== Career ==
In 1994, Ahmed began working as a lecturer in Women’s Studies at Lancaster University. There, she eventually became director of Women’s Studies. She remained there until she was appointed to the'Department of Media and Communications at Goldsmiths College, University of London, in 2004. After a year of working as a reader in Race and Cultural Studies, she was elected to the Professorship of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths. From 2013 to 2016, she was also director of the Centre for Feminist Research, which she called a "lifeline and a shelter [...] not populated by the same old bodies" in her resignation blog post at Goldsmiths. Throughout her career, she also had visiting appointments at Cambridge University, Rutgers University, University of Sydney, and University of Adelaide.

In 2016, she resigned from her position as Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths in solidarity with the students who filed sexual harassment claims against other members of staff there. She wrote a blog post titled "Resignation" and further explained her decision to resign in protest against Goldsmiths’ failure to adequately address the issue, stating: "Resignation is a feminist issue". She now works as an independent scholar and researcher and continues to publish books and articles and occasionally lectures.

Her work is very much connected to her own struggles as a queer person of color. The term ''feminist killjoy'' is a reference to pervasive and harmful cultural tropes such as the "angry Black woman" or the "unhappy queer". In calling herself a feminist killjoy, she wants to deconstruct Western notions of normative happiness as the ultimate goal in life and highlight the figures that interrupt such narratives. Her books titled ''The Promise of Happiness'' (2010), ''Living a Feminist Life'' (2017), and ''The Feminist Killjoy Handbook'' (2023) work through this in more detail.

== Selected Works ==
* ''Differences that Matter: Feminist Theory and Postmodernism'' (1998)
* ''Strange Encounters: Embodied Others in Post-Coloniality'' (2000)
* ''The Cultural Politics of Emotion'' (2004)
* ''Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others'' (2006)
* ''The Promise of Happiness'' (2010)
* ''On Being Included: Racism and Diversity in Institutional Life'' (2012)
* ''Willful Subjects'' (2014)
* ''Living a Feminist Life'' (2017)
* ''What’s the Use?'' (2019)
* ''Complaint!'' (2021)
* ''The Feminist Killjoy Handbook'' (2023)
* ''No Is Not a Lonely Utterance'' (forthcoming)

== Social Media ==
As an independent scholar, Ahmed regularly uses multiple social media platforms to blog and publish her thoughts on contemporary issues. Her Substack handle is @feministkilljoys — a nod to her research blog (feministkilljoys.com) titled feministkilljoys. She also has a personal website (saranahmed.com) with links to her articles, latest projects, upcoming lectures, and CV. You can also find her on Instagram (@feministkilljoyatwork) where she shares some of the behind-the-scenes of her scholarly work.

== Accolades ==
* Feminist and Women’s Studies Network (FWSA) Book Prize 2012, ''The Promise of Happiness'' for "ingenuity and scholarship in the fields of feminism, gender or women’s studies."
* Phenomenology Roundtable Award 2010 for "outstanding contribution to the field of phenomenological research".

== Sources ==
* Ahmed, Sara. "Bio." Sara Ahmed, www.saranahmed.com/bio-cv. Accessed 19 Jan. 2025.
* - - -. "feministkilljoys." ''Feministkilljoys'', feministkilljoys.com. Accessed 19 Jan. 2025.
* - - -. "Resignation." ''Feministkilljoys'', feministkilljoys.com/2016/05/30/resignation/. Accessed 19 Jan. 2025.
* Ahmed, Sara, and Katy P. Sian. "Sara Ahmed." ''Conversations in Postcolonial Thought'', edited by Katy P. Sian, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, pp. 15-34.
* Binyam, Maya. "You Pose a Problem: A Conversation with Sara Ahmed." ''The Paris Review'', 19 Jan. 2022, www.theparisreview.org/blog/2022/01/14/you-pose-a-problem-a-conversation-with-sara-ahmed/. Accessed 21 Jan. 2025.
* Mehra, Nishta J. "Sara Ahmed: Notes from a Feminist Killjoy." ''Guernica'', 31 July 2017, www.guernicamag.com/sara-ahmed-the-personal-is-institutional/. Accessed 20 Jan. 2025.

Fredric Jameson

2024-10-23T20:06:03Z

Pankratz:

1934-2024. American literary critic and [[Karl Marx|Marxist]] thinker.

Notable book: ''Postmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism'' (1991), in which he analyses postmodernism as a cultural manifestation of the [[Late capitalism|late capitalist]] mode of production. Due to the close connection between the two phenomena, Jameson argues that "every position on postmodernism in culture [...] is also at one and the same time, and necessarily, an implicitly or explicitly political stance on the nature of multinational capitalism today" (ch. 1).

[[Category:Stub]]

Jean Rhys

2024-07-31T09:48:13Z

Pankratz:

1890-1979, initially named Ella Gwendoline Rees Williams. West Indian born writer whose works discuss themes like displacement, alienation, and the female experience in the early 20th century.

== Early Life ==
Jean Rhys’s father, William Rees Williams, was a Welsh medical doctor, and her mother, Minna Williams (née Lockhart), was a third-generation Dominican Creole of Scots ancestry. Rhys was born in Roseau, Dominica. At the age of 16, she moved to England to live with an aunt due to a strained relationship with her mother. She attended the Perse School for Girls in Cambridge and later the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London.

In 1919, Rhys married her first of three husbands, Willem Johan Marie (Jean) Lenglet, a French-Dutch journalist. They had two children, a son who died at three weeks old and a daughter named Maryvonne. One year after their divorce in 1933, she married editor Leslie Tilden-Smith, who supported her writing career until he died in 1945. Her third marriage to solicitor Max Hamer in 1947 was marked by further personal problems, including Hamer’s imprisonment for fraud.

==Literary Themes==
Rhys's literary works explore themes of disorientation and the challenges of adapting to life. Her early novels, including ''Quartet'' (1928) and ''Voyage in the Dark'' (1934), depict women's lives navigating the harsh realities of exile and societal marginalization. These works are characterized by their lyrical prose, psychological depth, and recurring themes of vulnerability and resilience.

==Wide Sargasso Sea==
Her most acclaimed work, ''[[Wide Sargasso Sea]]'' (1966), is a prequel to [[Charlotte Bronte]]’s ''[[Jane Eyre]]''. Rhys's novel reimagines the life of Bertha Mason, whose backstory is rooted in the Caribbean and who is also known as the “madwoman in the attic”. Through this narrative, Rhys addresses themes of colonialism, racial inequality, and the clash of cultures while offering a nuanced critique of the prevailing imperialist narratives.

==Modernist Contributions==
While Rhys is often associated with post-colonial literature due to her exploration of colonial themes and identities, her contributions to modernist culture are equally significant. Her narrative technique frequently employs a [[stream of consciousness]] approach, reflecting her characters' inner turmoil and split identities. This modernist style aligns with contemporaries like [[Virginia Woolf]] and [[James Joyce]], who similarly pushed the boundaries of traditional narrative forms. In her novels from the modernist period, Rhys often depicts female protagonists who struggle against poverty, isolation, and degradation, frequently encountering harsh treatment and contempt from others.

Jean Rhys is viewed as a modernist, postcolonial, Caribbean, British, and Creole writer. These overlapping identities enrich her works with many perspectives, establishing her as a distinctive voice in 20th-century literature.

==Legacy and Recognition==
Despite her significant contributions to modernist and Caribbean literature, Rhys’s work was not widely recognized until later. ''Wide Sargasso Sea'' brought her critical acclaim and established her as an international literary figure. Her works are celebrated today for their emotional intensity, stylistic innovation, and deep exploration of identity and displacement.

Jean Rhys’s literary legacy continues to influence contemporary writers, scholars, and filmmakers. Her exploration of themes such as exile, identity, and the female experience offers valuable insights into the complexities of the human condition, bridging the realms of modernist and post-colonial studies.

==Selected Works==
:''Quartet'' (1928)
:''After Leaving Mr. Mackenzie'' (1931)
:''Voyage in the Dark'' (1934)
:''Good Morning, Midnight'' (1939)
:''Wide Sargasso Sea'' (1966)
:''Smile Please'' (1979)
----
===Sources===
*Carr, Helen. "4 Jean Rhys: West Indian intellectual". West Indian intellectuals in Britain, edited by Bill Schwarz, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003, pp. 93-113. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526137968.00010
*Ingman, Heather. "Jean Rhys (1890-1979)".Mothers and Daughters in the Twentieth Century: A Literary Anthology, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999, pp. 96-99. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781474469456-016
*Johnson, Erica L., and Patricia Moran. "Introduction: The Haunting of Jean Rhys." Jean Rhys: Twenty-First-Century Approaches. Ed. Erica Johnson and Patricia Moran. Edinburgh University Press, 2015. 1–18.
*Johnson, Erica L.. "10. ‘Upholstered Ghosts’: Jean Rhys’s Posthuman Imaginary". Jean Rhys: Twenty-First-Century Approaches, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015, pp. 209-227. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781474402200-014
*Savory, Elaine. Jean Rhys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print. Cambridge Studies in African and Caribbean Literature.

Vita Sackville-West

2024-07-31T09:42:53Z

Pankratz:

The Honourable Victoria Mary Sackville-West, Lady Nicolson, CH (9 March 1892 - 2 June 1962), best known as '''Vita Sackville-West''', was an English novelist, poet, journalist, and garden designer.

== Early Life and Education ==
Vita grew up in the Kentish countryside at [[Knole]], the Sackville-West's family estate. Her mother was [[Victoria Sackville-West]], Baroness Sackville, and her father was [[Lionel Sackville-West]], 3rd Baron Sackville. She was first home-schooled by governesses and was later enrolled at the very exclusive Helen Wolff's School for Girls in [[Mayfair]], London.

== Career ==
Sackville-West was an accomplished writer and received many accolades throughout her lifetime. One of them includes the Hawthornden Prize for Poetry for her narrative poem ''[[The Land]]'', published in 1926. In the poem, she pays homage to the beauty of the English countryside. She was associated with legendary [[Bloomsbury Group]] and was one of the bestselling authors of [[Hogarth Press]], the publishing house owned by Virginia and [[Leonard Woolf]].

As a garden designer, she also published several books on gardening. She was also a prolific diarist and an accomplished journalist.

In 1948, she was made a Companion of Honour.

== Private Life ==
In 1913, Sackville-West married [[Harold Nicolson]], a diplomat later turned novelist, with whom she shares two sons, Benedict and Nigel Nicolson. They had an open marriage and both of them had affairs with same-sex lovers. Their son Nigel wrote about his parent's relationship based on Sackville-West's journals and letters in ''[[Portrait of a Marriage]]'' (1973) <ref>Nicolson, Nigel. ''Portrait of a Marriage'', Atheneum, 1973.</ref>.

Most notable among the lovers of Sackville-West was the author [[Virginia Woolf]]. The two first met in December 1922 at a dinner party organized by [[Clive Bell]], Woolf's brother-in-law. An affair spanning several years ensued, well documented due to the many letters the pair exchanged with each other and other close parties. Sackville-West even served as the inspiration for Virginia Woolf's novel ''[[Orlando]]'', a story that spans centuries and follows the titular and ambiguously gendered character named Orlando. She, too, experimented with her gender expression throughout her life.

Besides Woolf, [[Violet Trefusis]] (neé Keppel), whom she met as a teenager, also played a crucial role in her life as the two also shared a sexual and romantic bond.

== Death, Legacy, and Popular Culture ==
Sackville-West died on 2 June 1962, aged 70, at [[Sissinghurst Castle]] in Kent after a long battle with abdominal cancer. Her works and cultural contributions have made a lasting impression on both the literary canon and popular culture. The biographical romantic drama film ''[[Vita & Virginia]]'' (2018) <ref>''Vita & Virginia''. Directed by [[Chanya Button]], performances by Gemma Arterton, Elizabeth Debicki, Rupert Penry-Jones, Peter Ferdinando, Thunderbird Releasing, 2018.</ref> by [[Chanya Button]] is among one of the more recent references to the iconic duo in contemporary pop culture.

== Selected Works ==
* ''The Heir: A Love Story Knole and the Sackvilles'' (1922)
* ''Challenge'' (1923)
* ''Seducers in Ecuador'' (1924)
* ''The Land'' (1926)
* ''The Edwardians'' (1930)
* ''All Passion Spent'' (1931)

== Sources ==
* Glendinning, Victoria. ''Vita: The Life of Vita Sackville-West'', Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1983.
* Kaivola, Karen. "Virginia Woolf, Vita Sackville-West, and the Question of Sexual Identity." ''Woolf Studies Annual'', vol. 4, 1998, pp. 18-40, ''JSTOR'', http://www.jstor.org/stable/24906336. Accessed 30 Jun. 2024.
* "Sackville‐West, ‘Vita’." ''The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature''. Eds. Birch, Dinah, and Katy Hooper. Oxford UP, 2013, ''Oxford Reference''. https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199608218.001.0001/acref-9780199608218-e-6655. Accessed 30 Jun. 2024.
* Sproles, Karyn Z. ''Desiring Women: The Partnership of Virginia Woolf and Vita Sackville-West'', University of Toronto Press, 2006.
* "Vita Sackville-West." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', last edited 3 Jun. 2024, ''Britannica''. www.britannica.com/biography/V-Sackville-West. Accessed 30 Jun. 2024.

=== References ===
<references />

Vita Sackville-West

2024-07-31T09:41:45Z

Pankratz:

The Honourable Victoria Mary Sackville-West, Lady Nicolson, CH (9 March 1892 - 2 June 1962), best known as '''Vita Sackville-West''', was an English novelist, poet, journalist, and garden designer.

== Early Life and Education ==
Vita grew up in the Kentish countryside at [[Knole]], the Sackville-West's family estate. Her mother was [[Victoria Sackville-West]], Baroness Sackville, and her father was [[Lionel Sackville-West]], 3rd Baron Sackville. She was first home-schooled by governesses and was later enrolled at the very exclusive Helen Wolff's School for Girls in [[Mayfair]], London.

== Career ==
Sackville-West was an accomplished writer and received many accolades throughout her lifetime. One of them includes the Hawthornden Prize for Poetry for her narrative poem ''[[The Land]]'', published in 1926. In the poem, she pays homage to the beauty of the English countryside. She was associated with legendary [[Bloomsbury Group]] and was one of the bestselling authors of [[Hogarth Press]], the publishing house owned by Virginia and [[Leonard Woolf]].

As a garden designer, she also published several books on gardening. She was also a prolific diarist and an accomplished journalist.

In 1948, she was made a Companion of Honour.

== Private Life ==
In 1913, Sackville-West married [[Harold Nicolson]], a diplomat later turned novelist, with whom she shares two sons, Benedict and Nigel Nicolson. They had an open marriage and both of them had affairs with same-sex lovers. Their son Nigel wrote about his parent's relationship based on Sackville-West's journals and letters in ''[[Portrait of a Marriage]]'' (1973) <ref>Nicolson, Nigel. ''Portrait of a Marriage'', Atheneum, 1973.</ref>.

Most notable among the lovers of Sackville-West was the author [[Virginia Woolf]]. The two first met in December 1922 at a dinner party organized by [[Clive Bell]], Woolf's brother-in-law. An affair spanning several years ensued, well documented due to the many letters the pair exchanged with each other and other close parties. Sackville-West even served as the inspiration for [[Virginia Woolf]]'s novel [[Orlando]], a story that spans centuries and follows the titular and ambiguously gendered character named Orlando. She, too, experimented with her gender expression throughout her life.

Besides Woolf, [[Violet Trefusis]] (neé Keppel), whom she met as a teenager, also played a crucial role in her life as the two also shared a sexual and romantic bond.

== Death, Legacy, and Popular Culture ==
Sackville-West died on 2 June 1962, aged 70, at [[Sissinghurst Castle]] in Kent after a long battle with abdominal cancer. Her works and cultural contributions have made a lasting impression on both the literary canon and popular culture. The biographical romantic drama film ''[[Vita & Virginia]]'' (2018) <ref>''Vita & Virginia''. Directed by [[Chanya Button]], performances by Gemma Arterton, Elizabeth Debicki, Rupert Penry-Jones, Peter Ferdinando, Thunderbird Releasing, 2018.</ref> by [[Chanya Button]] is among one of the more recent references to the iconic duo in contemporary pop culture.

== Selected Works ==
* ''The Heir: A Love Story Knole and the Sackvilles'' (1922)
* ''Challenge'' (1923)
* ''Seducers in Ecuador'' (1924)
* ''The Land'' (1926)
* ''The Edwardians'' (1930)
* ''All Passion Spent'' (1931)

== Sources ==
* Glendinning, Victoria. ''Vita: The Life of Vita Sackville-West'', Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1983.
* Kaivola, Karen. "Virginia Woolf, Vita Sackville-West, and the Question of Sexual Identity." ''Woolf Studies Annual'', vol. 4, 1998, pp. 18-40, ''JSTOR'', http://www.jstor.org/stable/24906336. Accessed 30 Jun. 2024.
* "Sackville‐West, ‘Vita’." ''The Concise Oxford Companion to English Literature''. Eds. Birch, Dinah, and Katy Hooper. Oxford UP, 2013, ''Oxford Reference''. https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199608218.001.0001/acref-9780199608218-e-6655. Accessed 30 Jun. 2024.
* Sproles, Karyn Z. ''Desiring Women: The Partnership of Virginia Woolf and Vita Sackville-West'', University of Toronto Press, 2006.
* "Vita Sackville-West." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', last edited 3 Jun. 2024, ''Britannica''. www.britannica.com/biography/V-Sackville-West. Accessed 30 Jun. 2024.

=== References ===
<references />

Barbara bodichon

2024-01-08T18:54:52Z

Pankratz:

8 April 1827 (Whatlington) - 11 June 1891 (Robertsbridge). One of the leading British women's rights activists of the 19th century, artist and teacher.

Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon's parents were Benjamin Leigh Smith and Anne Longden. Benjamin and Anne's relationship was a scandal, as they were not married. In 1834, Anne Longden died of tuberculosis when Barbara was only seven years old. This left her father Benjamin to raise Barbara and her siblings alone.

Throughout her life, Barbara was already interested in women's rights and founded the group "The Ladies of Langham Place" with other women in 1850. This group met weekly to discuss women's issues in a world of oppression and developed into one of the first organized women's movements.

In 1854, Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon published ''Brief Summary of the Laws of England Concerning Women''.

In 1857, she married the French doctor Eugène Bodichon and spent a lot of time in Algeria.

In 1858, in collaboration with Mary Hays and Bessie Rayner Parker, they published the ''English Woman's Journal'', which became one of the most influential periodicals of the Victorian era. In the journal, the women addressed issues such as equal rights for women and the expansion of employment opportunities outside the home. Through her efforts, Bodichon also ensured that women were allowed to vote in the United Kingdom in the 19th century. [what? this is news to me. Where did women have the right to vote?]

Together with Emily Davies, she developed university education for women and expanded it in 1866.

Thanks to her wealthy and intellectual family, Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon herself was able to study art at the Ladies' College in Bedford Square, London, under [[William Holman Hunt]]. Her works of art were exhibited at the Royal Academy.

https://victorianweb.org/gender/wojtczak/bodichon.html

Robinson, Solveig C. “‘Amazed at Our Success’: The Langham Place Editors and the Emergence of a Feminist Critical Tradition.” ''Victorian Periodicals Review'', vol. 29, no. 2, 1996, pp. 159–72. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20082917. Accessed 8 Jan. 2024.

''Woman’s Art Journal'', vol. 22, no. 2, 2001, pp. 58–58. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1358912. Accessed 7 Jan. 2024.

Dante Gabriel Rossetti

2024-01-08T18:46:03Z

Pankratz:

1828-1882. An English painter and poet.

== Early Life & Family ==

Dante Gabriel Rossetti was born as Gabriel Charles Dante Rossetti in London on 12 May 1828 as the oldest son of Gabriele and Frances Rossetti. He died at the age of 53 on 9 April 1882. Rossetti was best known as an English painter and poet.

His father Gabriele Pasquale Guiseppe Rossetti, born 1 March 1783, was an Italian scholar, former director of the Museo Borbonico in Naples and poet, who was "exiled from Naples" (Poetry Foundation) due to his political activities. After fleeing to Malta, Rossetti would move to London.

His Mother [[Frances Mary Lavinia Rossetti]] (born Polidori) was a British educator, publishing several educational books and essays in her lifetime.

Rossetti was the oldest of two sons, with an older and a younger sister, too. The older sister, [[Maria Francesca Rossetti]], was an author, the younger one, [[Christina Rossetti]], acclaimed renown as a poet. His younger brother [[William Michael Rossetti]] was a critic of British poetry and art.

Initially, Dante Gabriel Rossetti was home schooled by his mother before attending King's College until 1843, where he received an education in multiple languages such as Latin, Greek and French, showing an early interest in pursuing a career in the literary arts, similar to his parents and sibilings.

During his time at King's College, Rossetti's interests seemingly expanded to painting a well, which is why in 1843 he was enrolled at Cary's Art Academy (also known as Henry Sass' Drawing Academy) in Bloomsbury. Three years later, in 1846, he was admitted to the Royal Academy Antique School where he studied until 1848. Afterwards he was taught by Ford Madox Brown.

== Career ==

The first of Rossetti's oil paintings were created around 1849, among them "The Girlhood of Mary Virgin" as well as "Ecce Ancilla Domini". Those works reflect the influence of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] Rossetti and a few of his friends had formed. Members of the brotherhood included, among others, [[John Everett Millais]], [[William Holman Hunt]] and [[Thomas Woolner]].

Only one year later, in 1850, Rossetti finished his ink drawing "Hesterna Rosa" which he would later transfer into watercolour (1865). Another of Rossetti's most prominent works is the unfinished painting in oil "Found" (started in 1853).

While, as indicated above, following his passion for painting, Rossetti simultaneously kept publishing works of poetry. One of his early outlets was the ''Germ'' magazine, which his brother edited.

One of the most important years of his literary career was that of 1869. That year, Rossetti published over a dozen sonnets, revised several of his older poems such as "Dante at Verona" and "Jenny" as well as releasing several erotic poems ("Eden Bower", "Troy Town").

== Sources ==

Sharp, William. ''Dante Gabriel Rosetti: A Record and a Study''. Macmillan, 1882. [Maybe a bit outdated?]

Stephens, Frederic George. ''Dante Gabriel Rosetti''. Seeley, 1894. [Maybe also outdated?]

"Dante Gabriel Rosetti." ''Poetry Foundation''. 2024. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/dante-gabriel-rossetti. Accessed 7 January 2024.

Dante Gabriel Rossetti

2024-01-08T18:37:52Z

Pankratz:

1828-1882. An English painter and poet.

== Early Life & Family ==

Dante Gabriel Rossetti was born as Gabriel Charles Dante Rossetti in London on 12 May 1828 as the oldest son of Gabriele and Frances Rossetti. He died at the age of 53 on 9 April 1882. Rossetti was best known as an English painter and poet.

His father Gabriele Pasquale Guiseppe Rossetti, born 1 March 1783, was an Italian scholar, former director of the Museo Borbonico in Naples and poet, who was evacuated from Italy due to his political activities. After fleeing to Malta, Rossetti would move to London.

His Mother [[Frances Mary Lavinia Rossetti]] (born Polidori) was a British educator, publishing several educational books and essays in her lifetime.

Rossetti was the oldest of two sons, with an older and a younger sister, too. The older sister, [[Maria Francesca Rossetti]], was an author, the younger one, [[Christina Rossetti]], acclaimed renown as a poet. His younger brother [[William Michael Rossetti]] was a critic of British poetry and art.

Initially, Dante Gabriel Rossetti was home schooled by his mother before attending King's College until 1843, where he received an education in multiple languages such as Latin, Greek and French, showing an early interest in pursuing a career in the literary arts, similar to his parents and sibilings.

During his time at King's College, Rossetti's interests seemingly expanded to painting a well, which is why in 1843 he was enrolled at Cary's Art Academy (also known as Henry Sass' Drawing Academy) in Bloomsbury. Three years later, in 1846, he was admitted to the Royal Academy Antique School where he studied until 1848. Afterwards he was taught by Ford Madox Brown.

== Career ==

The first of Rossetti's oil paintings were created around 1849, among them "The Girlhood of Mary Virgin" as well as "Ecce Ancilla Domini". Those works reflect the influence of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] Rossetti and a few of his friends had formed. Members of the brotherhood included, among others, [[John Everett Millais]], [[William Holman Hunt]] and [[Thomas Woolner]].

Only one year later, in 1850, Rossetti finished his ink drawing "Hesterna Rosa" which he would later transfer into watercolour (1865). Another of Rossetti's most prominent works is the unfinished painting in oil "Found" (started in 1853).

While, as indicated above, following his passion for painting, Rossetti simultaneously kept publishing works of poetry. One of his early outlets was the ''Germ'' magazine, which his brother edited.

One of the most important years of his literary career was that of 1869. That year, Rossetti published over a dozen sonnets, revised several of his older poems such as "Dante at Verona" and "Jenny" as well as releasing several erotic poems ("Eden Bower", "Troy Town").

== Sources ==

Sharp, William. ''Dante Gabriel Rosetti: A Record and a Study''. Macmillan, 1882. [Maybe a bit outdated?]

Stephens, Frederic George. ''Dante Gabriel Rosetti''. Seeley, 1894. [Maybe also outdated?]

"Dante Gabriel Rosetti." ''Poetry Foundation''. 2024. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/dante-gabriel-rossetti. Accessed 7 January 2024.

Talk:Children in the British 19th Century

2024-01-08T18:32:42Z

Pankratz: Created page with "This is not really a lexicon article, but more of an essay. Delete here and publish on the BritBlog. And revise a bit. Your statements only hold true for working-class children."

This is not really a lexicon article, but more of an essay. Delete here and publish on the BritBlog. And revise a bit. Your statements only hold true for working-class children.

Children in the British 19th Century

2024-01-08T18:31:44Z

Pankratz:

Children in the British 19th Century

A child’s life was very different in the 19th century compared to the one today, when it comes to the tasks they had to do and fulfill.

Nowadays, children in Britain have or are supposed to have “a safe home, a free education and healthy food and places to play” (Website Children England), thus an environment they can fully develop in and feel secure. That is even legally declared in the Government as it is “obliged to make sure every child can grow up with these things, and be protected from neglect and harm” (Website Children England).

Of course, also here children are facing different sorts of challenges, which are (not only but mostly) connected to anxiety and stress that result from scholarly examinations or trends and ideals from social media platforms to only list two out of many factors (cf. Website Children England).

Children in the 19th century had very different challenges to face and followed a different daily routine filled with long and hard-working hours in factories. [this only holds true for working-class children. Middle- and upper-class children did not have to work in factories]

With the Industrial Revolution, Britain went through many major social and economic changes. It is even said that “[the] Industrial Revolution transformed Great Britain from a nation of agricultural villages into a nation of factory towns” (Nardinelli 739). One very big part of the social development was the employment of children. They did not only have to work very hard, but also very long. Richard Oastler described the suffering of factory children as follows: “[…] Ye are doomed to labor from morning to night for one who cares not how soon your weak and tender frames are stretched to breaking!” (Nardinelli 739).

This short but precise description already presents several problematic fields children had to face during that time. On the one hand, the long working days that were filled with hard work in factories for several days during the week. On the other hand, the fact that adults did not do much against these working conditions of children and were putting even more pressure on them.
M.T. Sadler in his work described these factories as “hellish institutions for the destruction of childhood” (Nardinelli 740) and yet during the first phase of the Industrial Revolution child labor was one crucial “social feature of English life” (Nardinelli 740).

In opposition to the very critical points regarding child labor stands the traditional view. Children who had to work and help their parents were as good as always from very poor families. Thus, it was considered very important and at some point, even necessary for children to work to support the family and bring a certain amount of income. Children not participating in any work due to attendance at school or another kind of activity was considered “a luxury good” (Humphries 407). Due to that, the abolition of child labor was not as much a point of interest as rather a “regulation of child labor” (Nardinelli 740). It is highlighted in the work by Nardinelli that “[t]he industrial revolution […] had created an economic system which depended on the labor of children, and laissez-faire policy held no hope for the improvement of the children’s condition.” (740).

Nevertheless, there was an improvement in the working conditions of children with the very first Factory Act in 1833. Namely, it “prohibited the employment of children under nine years of age in all textile mills (except silk) powered by steam or water” (Nardinelli 741). In addition to that, the working hours of child labor decreased to nine hours of work per day for children between 9 to 12 years of age. There also followed further Factory Acts with a change of working hours for children and the minimum age for employment. These Acts caused the working conditions and situations to change drastically and “Britain’s children were saved from the worst abuses of industrialization” (Nardinelli 741).

Looking at these points and including pieces of information we got in Session 3 on the Industrial Revolution, it can be concluded that this period was a very hard one – especially for the poorest part of British society. Not only did people suffer from poor living and working conditions, but also children had to work under very strict and bad conditions to help their families survive. Due to that, working-class children did not have time to go to school or do any other kinds of activities that they would like to do – they seemed to be crucial members of society who had to follow the same responsibilities as adults starting from a very young age.

Sources:

Humphried, Jane. "Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution." ''The Economic History Review'', vol. 66, no. 2, 2013, pp. 395-418.

Nardinelli, Clark. "Child Labor and the Factory Acts." ''The Journal of Economic History'', vol. 40, no. 4, 1980, pp. 739-755.

https://www.childrenengland.org.uk/pages/category/englands-children (last access: 07th January, 2024, 04:02 pm)

Elizabeth Browning

2024-01-08T18:26:35Z

Pankratz:

6 March 1806 (Kelloe) - 29 June 1861 (Florence). Elizabeth Barrett Browning was a major English poet in the Victorian era.

== Her Life ==

Elizabeth Barrett Browning was the daughter of Edward Moulton-Barret, a prosperous merchant who earned his money from sugar plantations in Jamaica, and Mary Graham-Clarke. The couple had eleven children, of whom Elizabeth was the eldest. She was self-educated in many respects, for instance, she taught herself Latin and French. She was incredibly well-read. She developed a great interest in literature from very early on and began writing poetry at an early age.

When Elizabeth Barrett was at the age of fifteen, she suffered a serious injury to her spinal column in a riding accident. When her brother Edward suddenly died, she furthermore fell into a severe depression and also developed tuberculosis. She was a seriously ill woman, who was categorised as doomed to die by the doctors treating her.

Her life changed, however, when she got to know [[Robert Browning]]. In January 1845, Robert Browning, who was himself a well-known poet, wrote a letter to Elizabeth Barrett, in which he expressed his admiration for her works. For months, they wrote letters to each other again and again. In May 1845, Robert Browning visited Elizabeth Barrett for the first time. Despite this meeting, the two continued to write letters to each other, which increasingly contained affectionate salutations and compliments alongside advice on poetry. During this time, they wrote almost 600 letters to each other. When these letters were published after 1899, they were regarded as one of the most poignant exchanges of love letters ever written in the English language (Danzer 85). For this reason, Elizabeth Browning´s name has long been associated with her romantic life and not with her great poetic works (87).

On 12 September 1846, Elizabeth and Robert Browning married, and one week later, they left England for Italy. These two events took place in secret, since Elizabeth Browning´s father was strictly against her marriage to Robert. The couple initially lived in Pisa until April 1847 and then moved to Florence, where they stayed until Elizabeth Browning´s death in 1861. While they were living in Florence, their only child Robert Wiedeman Barret Browning (called Pen) was born on 9 March 1849. In Pisa, Elizabeth Browning writes to an English friend that she feels like a newborn and has never been so carefree and happy before (Danzer 85-86). Robert Browning was a turning point in Elizabeth Browning´s life, because their love played a decisive role in her fight against her sickness and death (88).

== Her Poems ==

Elizabeth Browning´s poems exhibit an autobiographical character in many passages. They tell about the poet´s chronic illness, her recovery as well as her cheerful life in Italy. In some of her poems, she emphasises the important role that her husband´s love and his belief in her recovery played in the course of her illness (Danzer 87). In addition, many of her poems contain critical texts on contemporary issues such as child labour or slavery, which demonstrates “her passionate concern for human rights” (Flood).

When Elizabeth Browning was just eleven years old, she composed "The Battle of Marathon". Since her father was very proud of her intelligence and made every effort to support her, he had fifty copies of the poem printed and privately distributed in 1820. As Elizabeth Barrett grew older, she began sending her poems for publication to contemporary magazines. In May 1821, her poem "Stanzas Excited by Reflections on the Present State of Greece" appeared in ''The New Monthly Magazine''. This was her first officially published work. Elizabeth Browning´s name gradually became well-known in literary circles.

She became the first female poet ever to be considered for Poet Laureate (Flood), an honorary position at court. However, [[Alfred Tennyson]] was chosen instead of her in 1850 (Flood).

Elizabeth Browning is particularly well-known for her ''Sonnets from the Portuguese'' and ''Aurora Leigh''. ''Sonnets of the Portuguese'' (1850) is a collection of 44 love sonnets. They deal with the beginnings of Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning´s romance. The title was chosen in order to give the impression that the sonnets have no biographical significance, but that they are merely translations, because Elizabeth Browning thought it might be too private (Flood). The most famous poem of this collection is "How Do I Love Thee". ''Aurora Leigh'' (1857) is a long narrative poem and encompasses nine books. It deals with the heroine Aurora and her childhood, her youth in England and Italy, her self-education as well as her literary career. Besides, the poem tells the complicated love story between Aurora and the philanthropist Romney Leigh. Elizabeth Browning wrote several other works like "Stanzas on the Death of [[Lord Byron]]" (1824), ''An Essay on Mind, with Other Poems'' (1826), ''The Seraphim, and Other Poems'' (1838), ''Poems'' in two volumes (1844; new editions in 1850, 1853 and 1856), ''The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point'' (1850), ''Casa Guidi Windows'' (1851) or ''Poems Before Congress'' (1860).

== Bibliography ==

Danzer, Gerhard. ''Europa, deine Frau: Beiträge zu einer weiblichen Kulturgeschichte''. Springer, 2015.

Flood, Alison. “Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Five Best Poems.” ''The Guardian'', 6 March 2014, www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/06/elizabeth-browning-five-best-poems. Accessed 9 December 2023.

“Sonnets from the Portuguese: Poetry by Browning.” ''Britannica'', 25 October 2023, www.britannica.com/topic/Sonnets-from-the-Portuguese. Accessed 12 December 2023.

James Watt

2024-01-08T18:23:47Z

Pankratz:

1736-1819. Scottish inventor, famous for improving [[Thomas Newcomen]]'s steam engine.

[[File:James watt.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Portrait of James Watt (1736-1819) | Art Gallery of Ontario]]

James Watt (born January 19, 1736, Greenock, Renfrewshire, Scotland—died August 25, 1819, Heathfield Hall, near Birmingham, Warwick, England) was a Scottish instrument maker and inventor whose steam engine played a significant role in shaping the Industrial Revolution. Watt gained recognition for patenting both the double-acting engine and an early steam locomotive. In 1785, he achieved the honor of being elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of London.

Education and training

Watt's father managed a successful ship- and house-building enterprise. Watt received early education from his mother at home and later, during his time in grammar school, he acquired knowledge in Latin, Greek, and mathematics. A crucial part of his learning came from his father's workshops, where he used his own tools, workbench, and forge to create models (e.g., cranes and barrel organs) and became acquainted with ship instruments.

At the age of 17, Watt decided to pursue a career as a mathematical-instrument maker. He initially traveled to Glasgow and in 1755 to [[London]], where he found a master to guide his training. Though health problems prevented him from completing a proper apprenticeship, by 1756 he felt he had acquired sufficient skill “to work as well as most journeymen.” Upon returning to Glasgow, Watt opened a shop in 1757 on the university campus, specializing in the production of mathematical instruments such as quadrants, compasses, and scales.

During his time at the university, he formed connections with many scholars and scientists. Among them were renowned economist [[Adam Smith]] and British chemist and physicist Joseph Black, whose experiments on the concept of latent heat would prove crucial to the development of Watt's future steam engine designs. In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller, and over the next nine years, they had six children before her untimely death. In 1777, Watt married Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker and the couple had two children.

The Watt engine
[[File:Watt.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Steam Engine]]

While fixing a prototype Newcomen steam engine in 1764, Watt was struck by its inefficient use of steam. In May 1765, following efforts to tackle its improvement, he discovered a solution—the separate condenser, his first and most noteworthy invention. Watt recognized that the Newcomen engine's major flaw was the loss of latent heat (heat involved in changing a substance's state, such as from solid to liquid). Thus, he concluded that condensation needed to occur in a separate chamber connected to, but distinct from, the cylinder.

Soon after, he met John Roebuck, a British physician, chemist, and inventor, known for founding the Carron Works. Roebuck encouraged him to develop an engine. In 1768, they formed a partnership after Watt created a small test engine with financial support from Joseph Black. The next year, Watt secured the renowned patent for "A New Invented Method of Lessening the Consumption of Steam and Fuel in Fire Engines."

While working as a land surveyor in 1766, Watt remained consistently occupied for the next eight years, marking out canal routes in Scotland. Hence, this work obstructed his advancement with the steam engine. Following Roebuck's bankruptcy in 1772, Matthew Boulton, an English manufacturer and engineer associated with the Soho Works in Birmingham, acquired a share in Watt's patent. Disinterested in surveying and in Scotland, Watt relocated to Birmingham in 1774.

Following the extension of Watt's patent through an act of Parliament in 1775, he and Boulton initiated a 25-year partnership. Boulton's financial support facilitated rapid advancements with the engine. By 1776, two engines were put into operation—one for water pumping in a Staffordshire colliery, and the other for supplying air to the furnaces of British industrialist John Wilkinson, the renowned ironmaster.

Over the following five years, until 1781, Watt dedicated substantial time to the installation and supervision of numerous pumping engines for the copper and tin mines in Cornwall. Lacking business expertise, Watt had to endure tough negotiations to secure sufficient royalties for the new engines.

The next year, anticipating a fresh market in corn, malt, and cotton mills, Boulton encouraged Watt to create a rotary motion for the steam engine, replacing the original reciprocating action. In 1782, he secured a patent for the double-acting engine, where the piston both pushed and pulled. A new approach was required to firmly link the piston to the beam in this engine. In 1784, he addressed this issue by inventing the parallel motion, a system of interconnected rods that directed the piston rod in a perpendicular motion.

James Watt's later years

Demand for Watt's steam engine across various industries led to considerable wealth by 1790. In addition to his business success, Watt engaged in scientific pursuits, joining the Lunar Society and conducting experiments. Elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1785, he eventually took holidays, acquired an estate, and gradually withdrew from business after 1795.

During his extended retirement, marked by the loss of his son Gregory, his sister Margaret, and his daughter Jessy. Watt also mourned the loss of old friends, including Wedgwood in 1795, Black in 1799, Darwin in 1802, Priestley in 1803, and Robison in 1805. However, he was to experience an even more significant loss with the passing of his partner, Boulton. Nevertheless, Watt and his wife traveled to Scotland, France, and Germany after the Peace of Amiens in 1802.

In his old age, Watt feared his mental faculties might decline, so he resumed studying German and quickly regained proficiency. Watt maintained both his mental faculties and inventive powers until the end, demonstrated by his successful resolution of a problem posed by the Directors of the Glasgow Water Works in 1810. Watt's impressive inventive skills in his later years are also highlighted by his work on the sculpturing machine which he had set up in the attic of his house. In his workshop, he used the sculpturing machine to replicate original busts and figures for his friends.

Watt also served as a consultant to the Glasgow Water Company. His accomplishments were duly recognized, with honors including a doctorate of laws from the University of Glasgow in 1806 and a foreign associate position in the French Academy of Sciences in 1814 and a baronetcy, which he turned down.

Legacy

[[File:James-watt2 statue.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The Statue of James Watt in Glasgow, Scotland.]]

The Watt engine played a crucial role in shaping the Industrial Revolution by quickly integrating into numerous industries. Due to Watt's advancements in science and industry, the watt, a unit of power in the International System of Units (SI), representing one joule of work performed per second (or 1/746 horsepower), was named in his honor.

Certain scientists maintain that the introduction of the parallel motion (or double-acting engine) in 1784 marks the initiation of the Anthropocene Epoch—an unofficial period in geological time when human activities started to impact Earth's surface, atmosphere, and oceans significantly. After four years, he incorporated the centrifugal governor for the automatic regulation of the engine's speed, based on Boulton's recommendation, and in 1790, inventing a pressure gauge, he essentially finalized the Watt engine.

Demand for Watt's steam engine across various industries led to considerable wealth by 1790. In addition to his business success, Watt engaged in scientific pursuits, joining the Lunar Society and conducting experiments. Elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1785, he eventually took holidays, acquired an estate, and gradually withdrew from business after 1795.

Sources

Kingsford, Peter W.. "James Watt". ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 14 Dec. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Watt.

Dickinson HW. "Life in Retirement, 1800–1819". In: ''James Watt: Craftsman and Engineer''. Cambridge Library Collection - Technology. Cambridge University Press; 2010. 182-200.

New woman

2024-01-04T20:40:31Z

Pankratz:

Term used to describe the progressive woman in the late 19th century. First coined in 1894 [by whom?], the New Woman was both a term feared and used for empowerment. The periodical press used the term in order to vilify the New Woman after the movement [movement? which movement?] demanded equal rights to those of a man for unmarried women. Often illustrated in masculine attire and as an asexual biological type, the New Woman as a concept was rather contradictory as she was usually associated with moral decadence and sexual licence. In the wake of equal rights for men and women through political movements such as the suffragists and suffragettes, more and more people started to question traditional gender roles. Women began demanding more from life, such as college degrees and being able to earn their own money. By speaking up for herself and demanding more equality in education and labour, the New Woman was, in association with socialism, regarded as a threat to the status quo and the Victorian ideal of a wife, or The Angel in the House, since she was no longer satisfied with just being a submissive wife and loving mother.

[unclear: is the New Woman fictitious or real?]

Reference

Ledger, Sally. ''The New Woman. Fiction and Feminism at the Fin de Siècle''. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997.

George Stephenson

2024-01-04T20:37:19Z

Pankratz:

[[File:George+Stephenson+-+(1).jpg|thumb]]
9 June 1781 - 12 August 1848. British engineer and inventor known for his crucial role in the development of the steam locomotive and the establishment of the world's first public railroads, influencing the [[British railway system]]. Often referred to as the "father of the railroad revolution" [source?], Stephenson's innovative contributions transformed transportation and ushered in a new era of industrial progress in the 19th century.

== Early Life and Background ==
Born into a poor family of illiterates in Wylam, located in the northeastern part of England, he faced limited educational opportunities. His father, Robert, migrated from Scotland with his parents and married Bella Carr, the daughter of a dyer from Ovingham. George is the second child among six siblings. His father, employed as a stoker for the coal mine's pumping engine – a job shared by all Wylam residents due to the town's reliance on the coal mine – faces financial constraints and is unable to cover the costs of education. George remained unable to read or write until reaching the age of 18. During his adolescent years, he increasingly assumed significant roles involving steam engines in mines and attended evening classes to compensate for his lack of basic education.

Stephenson rose to the position of a brakeman, responsible for managing the ropes to which the large willow baskets, used for hoisting coal from the shaft, are attached. In addition, he works as a cobbler, enabling him to save enough money to establish a modest household in Willington Quay. It is there, in November 1802, that he marries Fanny Henderson, and it is also where his son Robert is born.

Seeking additional income, he acquired skills in watch repair. Following his successful modifications to a malfunctioning pumping engine, he was entrusted with overseeing all machinery owned by a coalition of mine proprietors in Northeast England in 1811.

== Innovations in Steam Engines==
[[File:Stephenson blücher.jpg|thumb|"Blücher," the first locomotive by George Stephenson, dating from 1814.]]
[[File:Stephenson rocket.jpg|thumb|The Rocket, 1829.]]
Stephenson builds his reputation as an engineer and innovator in Killingworth by disassembling and reassembling his machine every Saturday. Stephenson accomplishes a feat that eluded other engineers: successfully modifying and reconstructing the machine to make it operational. Consequently, Stephenson becomes a sought-after machine expert in the surrounding area, despite facing condescension from formally trained engineers and mechanics. In 1812, he secures a position as the machine maker and engineer at the Killingworth coal mine, earning an annual salary of £100.

Stephenson observes the locomotives around him and sees room for improvement in all of them. He decides to focus on this and, on 25 July 1814, the first locomotive of Stephenson's design makes its debut: The Blücher. It marks a significant improvement over earlier attempts by Trevithick and Blenkinsop to create a more reliable locomotive. In 1815, he invents a safety lamp for mines (around the same time as Humphry Davy). After that, he starts planning complete railway lines. In 1822, he builds the Hetton Colliery wagonway, and in 1825, he creates the railway from Stockton to Darlington, designed from the beginning for locomotives on iron rails. In 1823, he and his son Robert start an engineering firm in Newcastle upon Tyne that focuses on building locomotives. The most famous one is the Rocket, which wins a competition against other locomotives at the Rainhill Trials on October 6, 1829. Robert Stephenson and Company become the leading locomotive manufacturer of the 19th century, shipping locomotives worldwide.

== Legacy and Impact ==
George Stephenson's contributions had a profound and lasting impact on global transportation. Railways, propelled by steam locomotion, became integral to the Industrial Revolution, facilitating the efficient movement of goods and people. Stephenson's innovative spirit laid the groundwork for extensive railway networks worldwide, transforming societies and economies.

== Later Years ==
In the later stages of his life, Stephenson remained actively involved in railway engineering, supervising endeavors like the London and Birmingham Railway. His son, Robert Stephenson, continued the family's engineering tradition, following in his father's footsteps. George Stephenson earned several accolades throughout his lifetime, holding positions as Chief Engineer for different railways and serving as a Royal Commissioner for Railways. He also worked as a consultant for railways in Belgium and Spain.

== Sources == [please adapt to MLA style]
https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Stephenson

https://history-tugraz.at/besonderheiten/groessen_der_technik/stephenson.php

https://www.erih.de/wie-alles-begann/geschichten-von-menschen-biografien/biografie/stephenson

Elementary Education Act 1870

2024-01-04T20:31:44Z

Pankratz:

Introduced by W.E. Forster, the Vice-President of the Committee on Education, on 17 February 1870. Following extensive debates and a number of significant changes, the Bill passed the House of Commons on 22 July and quickly passed the House of Lords. It received royal approval in less than three weeks. The Bill aimed to ensure that there were enough primary schools in England and Wales. The details in the Act were supposed to explain the way it was going to be achieved.

'''Background to the Act'''

The industrial revolution and the 1867 Reform Act underscored the importance of providing education to working-class men. This time period is also characterised by a notable movement that advocated legalisation of trade unions, intertwined with a parallel effort of promoting compulsory and secular education. This educational initiative was supported by different groups such as mine workers, trade unions and some industrialists. Therefore, in 1869 the National Educational League was established to unite the groups listed above in their initiative of a free, compulsory and secular education. This movement received a lot of support from different sectors of society, encompassing those who stressed the importance of compulsory education for their children: "the first and most important thing they [a conference of miners' delegates] have declared is, that they must have compulsory education for their children" (Lawson and Silver 1973:352).

The possible implementation of mandatory public education financed and controlled by the state generated a number of discussion concerning possible conflicts with the church, the practicality of introducing of compulsory education and the possibility of financing them with charitable funds.

'''Content of the Elementary Education Act 1870'''

Elementary Education Act was finally introduced in 1870 and according to Lawson and Silver, was considered a successful compromise in English nineteenth-century history, provided that it facilitated both free and compulsory education. Moreover, it did not replace voluntary schools, it complemented them (Lawson and Silver 314).

The 1870 Elementary Educational Act aimed to guarantee elementary education for all children aged 5 to 13 through the creation of school boards to supervise and enhance the existing school infrastructure. Moreover, the Act required sufficient school places for all children, however, it did not guarantee universal free education, except when it was confirmed that the family could not afford to pay for school (Gillard).

The Elementary Education Act consists of two parts. The first part addresses a number of important aspects, including the provision of schools and the procedures involved to their establishment. This encompasses detailed information concerning school boards and attendance policies, ensuring a comprehensive for the effective functioning of elementary education. In contrast, the second part of the Act provides information on parliamentary grants, covering all necessary details on funding and financial support for elementary school initiatives.

'''Sources:'''

“Elementary Educational Act 1970.” ''Education in the UK'', www.education-uk.org/documents/acts/1870-elementary-education-act.html. Accessed 19 Dec. 2023.

Gillard, Derek. ''Education in the UK: A History'', 2018. www.education-uk.org/history

Hugh, Owen. ''The Elementary Education Act, 1870 (33 and 34 Vict., c. 75) with introduction, notes, and index ... and an appendix, etc..'' . London: Knight, 1872, pp. 1-39.

Lawson, John and Silver, Harold. ''A Social History of Education in England''. London: Methuen, 1973.

Gilbert and Sullivan

2024-01-04T20:26:57Z

Pankratz:

The designation ''Gilbert and Sullivan'' alludes to a British Victorian opera duo, consisting of the playwright and librettist William Schwenck Gilbert (1836-1911) and the composer Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900), and the works of musical theatre they created collaboratively. Between 1871 and 1896, they worked together on fourteen comic operas that enjoyed significant international acclaim.

By parodying older, both British and Continental, works and genres, Gilbert and Sullivan created the distinctive form of English comic opera, while also engaging in parodies of cultural formations such as behaviours, attitudes, institutions and, for example, stereotypes such as ‘the angel in the house’ as a way of playing with these conventions of social life (Williams xiii).

== Their First Collaboration ==
The duo first came together in 1871 to produce a Christmas extravaganza, ''Thespis'', for John Hollingshead, manager of the Gaiety Theatre in London. By that time both of them already had their careers in their respective fields consolidated, with Sullivan already having established himself as leading composer and Gilbert as successful playwright (Williams 1, 3).

Their first operatic collaboration only occurred in 1875, when a composer was needed for the musical backdrop of one of Gilbert’s librettos. The resulting work ''Trial by Jury'' (1875) was instantly popular and ran for over a year (“Arthur Sullivan”). This second collaboration was instigated on the initiative of Richard D’Oyly Carte (1844-1901), then manager of the Royalty Theatre. His desire to establish a distinctive school of English comic opera and his consequent encouragement and leadership were central to bringing and keeping Gilbert and Sullivan together (Williams 1). Upon their early success, Carte formed the Comedy Opera Company with the aim to present and promote Gilbert and Sullivan’s works (“Arthur Sullivan”).

==Their Partnership and Joint Work==
===Their Success and the Savoy Theatre===
With their third joint work, ''The Sorcerer'' (1877), Gilbert and Sullivan’s formula for the novel genre of English comic opera emerged, the development of which had already begun with their first two collaborations, and which continued to develop in the following six operas (Williams 5). ''The Sorcerer'' was followed by ''H.M.S. Pinafore'' (1878), which proved to be a great success, and ''The Pirates of Penzance'' (1879).

The collaboration between Gilbert and Sullivan peaked in the late 1870s and 1880s, with the entrepreneurial efforts of Richard D'Oyly Carte stabilizing and supporting it (Williams 77). In 1881, during the run of ''Patience'', Carte built the Savoy Theatre to house the duo’s productions there. ''Patience'' was the first opera to be performed at the Savoy Theatre and it was followed by ''Iolanthe'' (1882), ''Princess Ida'' (1884), and ''The Mikado'' (1885), with which the formation process of their innovative genre was substantially completed (Williams 5) and which in turn was followed by ''Ruddigore'' (1887), ''The Yeomen of the Guard'' (1888) and ''The Gondoliers'' (1889), the last great Savoy success. The duo’s joint work became known as the Savoy Operas, derived from the name of the theatre in which they were performed.

===The Carpet Quarrel and their Last Works===
In the late 1880s, however, relations between the partners had become strained, partly due to artistic disputes over new subjects and Gilbert’s pettiness regarding financial matters (“W.S. Gilbert”). A quarrel arose when Savoy manager Carte requested that new carpets for the Savoy Theatre be paid for out of ''The Gondoliers'' profits ("Beginner's Guide"). This disagreement over the specific contractual regulations on profit distribution ended with Sullivan supporting Carte and with Gilbert eventually breaking off the partnership.

The duo remained estranged until 1893, when they worked together again for the production of ''Utopia, Limited'' and then again in 1896 for their last joint work, ''The Grand Duke''. Their collaboration ultimately came to an end after 1896, when ''The Grand Duke'' proved unsuccessful, but by then they had firmly established the genre of English comic opera (Williams 365) and to this day, the enduring impact of their legacy is still present.

==List of their Major Works==
* ''Thespis; or, The Gods Grown Old'' (1871)
* ''Trial by Jury'' (1875)
* ''The Sorcerer'' (1877)
* ''H.M.S. Pinafore; or, The Lass That Loved a Sailor'' (1878)
* ''The Pirates of Penzance; or, The Slave of Duty'' (1879)
* ''Patience; or, Bunthorne’s Bride'' (1881)
* ''Iolanthe; or, The Peer and the Peri'' (1882)
* ''Princess Ida; or, Castle Adamant'' (1884)
* ''The Mikado; or, The Town of Titipu'' (1885)
* ''Ruddigore; or, The Witch’s Curse'' (1887)
* ''The Yeomen of the Guard; or, The Merryman and His Maid'' (1888)
* ''The Gondoliers; or, The King of Barataria'' (1889)
* ''Utopia, Limited; or, The Flowers of Progress'' (1893)
* ''The Grand Duke; or, The Statutory Duel'' (1896)

==Bibliography==
“Arthur Sullivan.” ''Britannica Academic'', 7 Aug. 2019, academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Arthur-Sullivan/70260. Accessed 2 Jan. 2024.

“The Beginner’s Guide to Gilbert & Sullivan.” ''English National Opera'', 30 June 2023, www.eno.org/discover-opera/beginners-guide-gilbert-sullivan/. Accessed 27 Dec. 2023.

Williams, Carolyn. ''Gilbert and Sullivan: Gender, Genre, Parody''. Columbia UP, 2011.

“W.S. Gilbert.” ''Britannica Academic'', 7 Aug. 2019, academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/WS-Gilbert/36813. Accessed 2 Jan. 2024.

William Wordsworth

2024-01-04T20:22:44Z

Pankratz:

1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement. [[Poet Laureate]].

Life:

William Wordsworth was born in Cockermouth (England). He was the second of five children. William's sister Dorothy was born a year after him and was a poet and diarist. The two were very close and Dorothy plays an important role in some of William's works. As William's father travelled a lot, he was not very close to him. His relationship with his mother was better.

Wordsworth first went to a school in Cockermouth, after which he attended a school in Penrith. After his mother died, his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire. His sister Dorothy was sent elsewhere [where precisely?], which is why William and Dorothy did not see each other for nine years. In 1787, Wordsworth attended St John's College in Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791.

In 1792 he met [where? in France or Britain? If in France: what did Wordsworth do there?] a French woman called Annette Vallon, with whom he also fell in love. Their daughter Caroline was born in 1792. Due to the strained relations between Great Britain and France [this is too nicely put. Please be more precise], Annette and William did not marry. He later married Mary Hutchinson.

William Wordsworth collaborated with Samuel Taylor Coleridge on the famous collection of poems ''Lyrical Ballads'' (1798). His poetry is characterised by a deep connection with nature. Themes such as memory, childhood and the influences of the natural environment are often dealt with in his works. He believed in the transformative power of nature and sought to capture the emotional and spiritual impact of the natural world on the human soul.

Works [please adapt to MLA style]:

- I Wandered Lonely As a Cloud

- The Solitary Reaper

- Expostulation and Reply

- The Tables Turned

- To the Cuckoo

- To a Butterfly

- There was a Boy

- Three Years She Grew in Sun and Shower

- The World Is Too Much With Us

- It Is a Beauteous Evening, Calm and Free

- The Simplon Pass

- Goody Blake and Harry Gill

- London, 1802

- England! The Time Is Come

Sources [please adapt to MLA style]:

Borgmeier, R. (2004). Wordsworth, William. In: Engler, B., Kreutzer, E., Müller, K., Nünning, A. (eds) Englischsprachige Autoren. J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-02951-5_112

Kohl, S. (2015). William Wordsworth. In: Kindler Kompakt: Englische Literatur, 19. Jahrhundert. J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05527-9_6

https://internetpoem.com/william-wordsworth/biography/

John Ruskin

2023-12-14T22:55:21Z

Pankratz:

8 February 1819-20 January 1900. Influential art critic.

== Private Life ==
Ruskin was the only child of John James Ruskin and Margaret Cox. Due to his father who tutored him, he came in contact with art at a very young age. Together with his family, he travelled to several European countries, such as the Switzerland, Italy and France and therefore came in contact with foreign cultures very early as well.

Between 1837 and 1842, Ruskin studied at Christ Church College, Oxford and during this time, in 1840, he married Adèle Domecq. This marriage caused him a mental breakdown, which is why he travelled to Italy where he came in touch with paintings and architecture. In 1848, Ruskin married a second time [what happened to his first wife? divorce? murder?], Euphemia “Effie” Chalmers Gray, but after six years she annulled the unhappy marriage in 1856. Throughout the years, Ruskin suffered from mental breakdowns, one after Rose La Touche, an ill girl he knew since she was a young girl and who he proposed to several times, died in 1875. He started using séances to speak to her again.
The last ten years before his death were characterised by mental decline. Ruskin spent his time at his estate, Brantwood, on Lake Coniston. After catching the flu, he died 20 January 1900 in Brantwood, Lancashire.

== Career ==
1843, shortly after he graduated from Oxford, Ruskin published his first art book: ''Modern Painters: their Superiority in the Art of Landscape Painting to the Ancient Masters''. In total, 5 volumes were published by 1860, all initially under the pseudonym “a Graduate of Oxford”. Within the next few years, he visits France and Italy and got inspired by several authors and architecture. Resulting from that, he published ''The Seven Lamps of Architecture'' in 1846, the first book he published under his name, and ''The Stones of Venice'' (1851-1853), which consists of three volumes. 1853, Ruskin held lectures on architecture and painting in Edinburgh. During the next years, he published volume 3 and 5 of ''Modern Painters'', supports the painter [[William Turner]] and members of the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]] like [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and [[Edward Burne-Jones]]. In 1866, he held the lecture on The Relation of National Ethics to National Arts at Cambridge University. Between 1869 and 1879, and 1883 and 1884, he got the post of Slade Professor of Art at Oxford University.
During his last years which he spent in Brantwood, he worked on the unreliable autobiography ''Praeterita'', which he never finished.
John Ruskin is regarded as a representative of interdisciplinary thinking, as his knowledge covered the fields of politics, botany, geology, poetry, museology, architecture, art and history.

== Works Cited ==
“John Ruskin.” arthistoricum. https://www.arthistoricum.net/themen/portale/gkg/quellen/ruskin. Accessed 14 December 2023. 
„John Ruskin.“ Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek. https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118604279. Accessed 14 December 2023. 
“Ruskin, John.” ''Dictionary of Art Historians''. https://arthistorians.info/art-historian/ruskinj/. Accessed 14 December 2023.

John Ruskin

2023-12-14T22:53:29Z

Pankratz:

8 February 1819-20 January 1900. Influential art critic.

== Private Life ==
Ruskin was the only child of John James Ruskin and Margaret Cox. Due to his father who tutored him, he came in contact with art at a very young age. Together with his family, he travelled to several European countries, such as the Switzerland, Italy and France and therefore came in contact with foreign cultures very early as well.

Between 1837 and 1842, Ruskin studied at Christ Church College, Oxford and during this time, in 1840, he married Adèle Domecq. This marriage caused him a mental breakdown, which is why he travelled to Italy where he came in touch with paintings and architecture. In 1848, Ruskin married a second time [what happened to his first wife? divorce? murder?], Euphemia “Effie” Chalmers Gray, but after six years she annulled the unhappy marriage in 1856. Throughout the years, Ruskin suffered from mental breakdowns, one after Rose La Touche, an ill girl he knew since she was a young girl and who he proposed to several times, died in 1875. He started using séances to speak to her again.
The last ten years before his death were characterised by mental decline. Ruskin spent his time at his estate, Brantwood, on Lake Coniston. After catching the flu, he died 20 January 1900 in Brantwood, Lancashire.

== Career ==
1843, shortly after he graduated from Oxford, Ruskin published his first art book: ''Modern Painters: their Superiority in the Art of Landscape Painting to the Ancient Masters''. In total, 5 volumes were published by 1860, all initially under the pseudonym “a Graduate of Oxford”. Within the next few years, he visits France and Italy and got inspired by several authors and architecture. Resulting from that, he published ''The Seven Lamps of Architecture'' in 1846, the first book he published under his name, and ''The Stones of Venice'' (1851-1853), which consists of three volumes. 1853, Ruskin held lectures on architecture and painting in Edinburgh. During the next years, he published volume 3 and 5 of ''Modern Painters'', supports the painter [[William Turner]] and members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood like [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and [[Edward Burne-Jones]]. In 1866, he held the lecture on The Relation of National Ethics to National Arts at Cambridge University. Between 1869 and 1879, and 1883 and 1884, he got the post of Slade Professor of Art at Oxford University.
During his last years which he spent in Brantwood, he worked on the unreliable autobiography ''Praeterita'', which he never finished.
John Ruskin is regarded as a representative of interdisciplinary thinking, as his knowledge covered the fields of politics, botany, geology, poetry, museology, architecture, art and history.

== Works Cited ==
“John Ruskin.” arthistoricum. https://www.arthistoricum.net/themen/portale/gkg/quellen/ruskin. Accessed 14 December 2023. 
„John Ruskin.“ Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek. https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118604279. Accessed 14 December 2023. 
“Ruskin, John.” ''Dictionary of Art Historians''. https://arthistorians.info/art-historian/ruskinj/. Accessed 14 December 2023.

John Ruskin

2023-12-14T22:53:03Z

Pankratz:

8 February 1819-20 January 1900. Influential art critic.

== Private Life ==
Ruskin was the only child of John James Ruskin and Margaret Cox. Due to his father who tutored him, he came in contact with art at a very young age. Together with his family, he travelled to several European countries, such as the Switzerland, Italy and France and therefore came in contact with foreign cultures very early as well.

Between 1837 and 1842, Ruskin studied at Christ Church College, Oxford and during this time, in 1840, he married Adèle Domecq. This marriage caused him a mental breakdown, which is why he travelled to Italy where he came in touch with paintings and architecture. In 1848, Ruskin married a second time [what happened to his first wife? divorce? murder?], Euphemia “Effie” Chalmers Gray, but after six years she annulled the unhappy marriage in 1856. Throughout the years, Ruskin suffered from mental breakdowns, one after Rose La Touche, an ill girl he knew since she was a young girl and who he proposed to several times, died in 1875. He started using séances to speak to her again.
The last ten years before his death were characterised by mental decline. Ruskin spent his time at his estate, Brantwood, on Lake Coniston. After catching the flu, he died 20 January 1900 in Brantwood, Lancashire.

== Career ==
1843, shortly after he graduated from Oxford, Ruskin published his first art book: ''Modern Painters: their Superiority in the Art of Landscape Painting to the Ancient Masters''. In total, 5 volumes were published by 1860, all initially under the pseudonym “a Graduate of Oxford”. Within the next few years, he visits France and Italy and got inspired by several authors and architecture. Resulting from that, he published ''The Seven Lamps of Architecture'' in 1846, the first book he published under his name, and ''The Stones of Venice'' (1851-1853), which consists of three volumes. 1853, Ruskin held lectures on architecture and painting in Edinburgh. During the next years, he published volume 3 and 5 of ''Modern Painters'', supports the painter [[William Turner]] and members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood like [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and [[Edward Burne-Jones]]. In 1866, he held the lecture on The Relation of National Ethics to National Arts at Cambridge University. Between 1869 and 1879, and 1883 and 1884, he got the post of Slade Professor of Art at Oxford University.
During his last years which he spent in Brantwood, he worked on the unreliable autobiography ''Praeterita'', which he never finished.
John Ruskin is regarded as a representative of interdisciplinary thinking, as his knowledge covered the fields of politics, botany, geology, poetry, museology, architecture, art and history.

== Works Cited ==
“John Ruskin.” arthistoricum. https://www.arthistoricum.net/themen/portale/gkg/quellen/ruskin. Accessed 14 December 2023. 
„John Ruskin.“ Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek. https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118604279. Accessed 14 December 2023. 
“Ruskin, John.” ''Dictionary of Art Historians''. https://arthistorians.info/art-historian/ruskinj/. Accessed 14 December 2023.

Battle of Waterloo

2023-12-14T22:43:15Z

Pankratz:

18 June 1815. Final battle of the Napoleonic Wars and the end of Napoleon Bonaparte's rule as the Emperor of the French. French army versus the British-led Allied forces commanded by the Duke of Wellington, and the Prussian army led by General Blücher.

=== Background ===
In 1814, Napoleon had been forced to resign. He was banished to Elba, an island in the Mediterranian. However, he was able to leave Elba in February 1815 and swiftly regained his position of authority and power in France. Napoleon's return to France resulted in an era known as ''the Hundred Days'', in which his intention was to reestablish the French Empire and to solidify his rule once again.

Napoleon's return and the danger it opposed for the other European countries resulted in the formation of the Seventh Coalition. Among the allies of this coalition were Russia, Britain, Austria and Prussia. They all shared the aim to overthrow and diminish Napoleon. Napoleon's aim was to split up and destroy the coalition forces before they could come together.

Two days prior to the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon faced General Blücher's Prussian army at the Battle of Ligny on 16 June 1815. At the same time, French forces and an Anglo-Dutch-Belgian combined force under the command of the Duke of Wellington fought in the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussian Army was weakened by this prior attack but successfully withdrew from the Battle of Ligny. With the Prussians withdrawn, Napoleon saw an opportunity to defeat Wellington at Quatre Bras on the morning of 17 June. Wellington recognized the danger and began withdrawing toward Waterloo.

=== The Battle ===
Three different armies fought in the Battle of Waterloo: Napoleon's Armée du Nord, a multinational army under Wellington, and a Prussian army commanded by General Blücher. Wellington's choice of Waterloo as the location for the battle was a major factor for success. The Allies benefited strategically from their location, which included a secure withdrawal route, better visibility, flank protection, control of important buildings, and a defensible ridge.

The battle began with Napoleon attacking key positions of the Allies, including Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte. Fierce fighting ensued as the French attempted to break through the Allied lines. The Prussian army arrived to assist the Allies as the battle progressed and changed the direction of the battle by engaging the French forces on the eastern flank.
The center of the Allied lines was the target of the French last attack, yet the British defensive positions and squares withstood several attacks. After regrouping and fortifying themselves, the Prussians decisively counterattacked the right flank of the French. The French position was weakened by this well-planned attack, which aided the Allies in their victory. The French forces started to withdraw from Waterloo as the British held their ground and the Prussians pressed in on their right flank.

=== Aftermath ===
The Battle of Waterloo has inflicted considerable losses on both opposing forces. The Hundred Days of Napoleon's return from exile came to an end with the French defeat at Waterloo.
Following his defeat, Napoleon's support from the French public and his own army vanished, which ultimately led to Napoleon's abdication on 22 June 1815. Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he spent the rest of his life. It sparked the First French Empire's demise and Napoleon's second and final abdication as Emperor of France. The Battle of Waterloo established a historical turning point, since it initiated a period of relative peace and stability in Europe after 23 years of wars.

=== Sources ===
Black, Jeremy. ''The Battle of Waterloo.'' Random House, 2010.

Geoghegan, Patrick. "'A BATTLE OF GIANTS': WATERLOO, WELLINGTON AND IRELAND." ''History Ireland'' 23.3 (2015): 22-26.

Kirkpatrick, David. "The Battle of Waterloo." Royal United Service Institute, 2015.

Rose, Edward PF. "The Battle of Waterloo, 18 June 1815: Some Geological Reflections to Mark the Bicentenary." ''Geology Today'' 31.3 (2015): 103-108.

Simms, Brendan. ''The Longest Afternoon: The 400 Men Who Decided the Battle of Waterloo.'' Basic Books, 2015.

Teague, George E. "Waterloo and Gettysburg: A Campaign Comparison." U.S. Army War College, 2014.

Veve, Thomas D. "Wellington and the Army of Occupation in France, 1815–1818." ''The International History Review'' 11.1 (1989): 98-108.

Elizabeth Browning

2023-12-14T22:35:36Z

Pankratz:

6 March 1806 (Kelloe) - 29 June 1861 (Florence). Elizabeth Browning (full name Elizabeth Barrett Browning) was a major English poet in the Victorian era.

== Her Life ==

Elizabeth Barrett Browning was the daughter of Edward Moulton-Barret, a prosperous merchant who earned his money from sugar plantations in Jamaica, and Mary Graham-Clarke. The couple had eleven children, of whom Elizabeth was the eldest. She was self-educated in many respects, for instance, she taught herself Latin and French. She was incredibly well-read. She developed a great interest in literature from very early on and began writing poetry at an early age.

When Elizabeth Barrett was at the age of fifteen, she suffered a serious injury to her spinal column in a riding accident. When her brother Edward suddenly died, she furthermore fell into a severe depression and also developed tuberculosis. She was a seriously ill woman, who was categorised as doomed to die by the doctors treating her.

Her life changed, however, when she got to know [[Robert Browning]]. In January 1845, Robert Browning, who was himself a well-known poet, wrote a letter to Elizabeth Barrett, in which he expressed his admiration for her works. For months, they wrote letters to each other again and again. In May 1845, Robert Browning visited Elizabeth Barrett for the first time. Despite this meeting, the two continued to write letters to each other, which increasingly contained affectionate salutations and compliments alongside advice on poetry. During this time, they wrote almost 600 letters to each other. When these letters were published after 1899, they were regarded as one of the most poignant exchanges of love letters ever written in the English language (Danzer 85). For this reason, Elizabeth Browning´s name has long been associated with her romantic life and not with her great poetic works (87).

On 12 September 1846, Elizabeth and Robert Browning married, and one week later, they left England for Italy. These two events took place in secret, since Elizabeth Browning´s father was strictly against her marriage to Robert. The couple initially lived in Pisa until April 1847 and then moved to Florence, where they stayed until Elizabeth Browning´s death in 1861. While they were living in Florence, their only child Robert Wiedeman Barret Browning (called Pen) was born on 9 March 1849. In Pisa, Elizabeth Browning writes to an English friend that she feels like a newborn and has never been so carefree and happy before (Danzer 85-86). Robert Browning was a turning point in Elizabeth Browning´s life, because their love played a decisive role in her fight against her sickness and death (88).

== Her Poems ==

Elizabeth Browning´s poems exhibit an autobiographical character in many passages. They tell about the poet´s chronic illness, her recovery as well as her cheerful life in Italy. In some of her poems, she emphasises the important role that her husband´s love and his belief in her recovery played in the course of her illness (Danzer 87). In addition, many of her poems contain critical texts on contemporary issues such as child labour or slavery, which demonstrates “her passionate concern for human rights” (Flood).

When Elizabeth Browning was just eleven years old, she composed "The Battle of Marathon". Since her father was very proud of her intelligence and made every effort to support her, he had fifty copies of the poem printed and privately distributed in 1820 (Ingram 3, 5). When Elizabeth Barrett grew older, she was no longer content to simply write poems, “but began to send them for publication to contemporary periodicals” (18). In May 1821, her poem "Stanzas Excited by Reflections on the Present State of Greece" appeared in ''The New Monthly Magazine''. This was her first officially published work. Elizabeth Browning´s name gradually became well-known in literary circles. John Kenyon (a distant relative of her), for example, contributed to this. He introduced her to most of her first literary friends and ensured that her poems were accepted and recognised by the most important literary journals of the time (18, 19).

She became the first female poet ever to be considered for Poet Laureate (Flood), an honorary position at court. However, [[Alfred Tennyson]] was chosen instead of her in 1850 (Flood).

Elizabeth Browning is particularly well-known for her ''Sonnets from the Portuguese'' and ''Aurora Leigh''. ''Sonnets of the Portuguese'' (1850) is a collection of 44 love sonnets. They deal with the beginnings of Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning´s romance. The title was chosen in order to give the impression that the sonnets have no biographical significance, but that they are merely translations, because Elizabeth Browning thought it might be too private (Flood). The most famous poem of this collection is "How Do I Love Thee". ''Aurora Leigh'' (1857) is a long narrative poem and encompasses nine books. It deals with the heroine Aurora and her childhood, her youth in England and Italy, her self-education as well as her literary career. Besides, the poem tells the complicated love story between Aurora and the philanthropist Romney Leigh. Elizabeth Browning wrote several other works like "Stanzas on the Death of [[Lord Byron]]" (1824), ''An Essay on Mind, with Other Poems'' (1826), ''The Seraphim, and Other Poems'' (1838), ''Poems'' in two volumes (1844; new editions in 1850, 1853 and 1856), ''The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point'' (1850), ''Casa Guidi Windows'' (1851) or ''Poems Before Congress'' (1860).

== Bibliography ==

Danzer, Gerhard. ''Europa, deine Frau: Beiträge zu einer weiblichen Kulturgeschichte''. Springer, 2015.

Flood, Alison. “Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Five Best Poems.” ''The Guardian'', 6 March 2014, www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/06/elizabeth-browning-five-best-poems. Accessed 9 December 2023.

Ingram, John H. ''Elizabeth Barrett Browning''. 5th ed., W. H. Allen, 1883. [maybe a wee bit outdated?]

“Sonnets from the Portuguese: Poetry by Browning.” ''Britannica'', 25 October 2023, www.britannica.com/topic/Sonnets-from-the-Portuguese. Accessed 12 December 2023.

Morant Bay Rebellion

2023-12-14T22:16:14Z

Pankratz:

11 October 1865. Anti-colonialist rising in Jamaica.

The Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865 stands as a watershed moment in Jamaica's history, serving as a catalyst for significant changes in British colonial rule and igniting discussions about racial inequality, social justice, and governance. The movement was a pivotal moment in the fight against colonial injustice, highlighting the complexities of power, race, and governance during that era and setting the stage for discussions on social reforms and equality.

== Background ==

The rebellion was sparked by a series of injustices and grievances faced by the impoverished and disenfranchised Black population in Jamaica. Under the leadership of preacher and activist Paul Bogle, who became an emblematic figure in the fight against oppression, the rebellion emerged as a culmination of frustration due to exploitative land tenure systems, poor living conditions, and limited political representation (Heuman, 122-123).

The catalyst for the uprising was an incident in Stony Gut, where Bogle, seeking justice for a man unjustly arrested, led a group to the Morant Bay courthouse. However, the peaceful demonstration quickly turned violent, leading to the death of several individuals, including the local custos (magistrate), and the courthouse was set ablaze (Flores, 20-22).

== British Involvement ==
The British response to the rebellion was brutal and severe. Governor Edward Eyre declared martial law, leading to widespread arrests, executions, and a merciless crackdown on the local population. Hundreds were killed, and many more faced floggings and arbitrary punishment, often without fair trials (Semmel, 4).

== Aftermath ==

The aftermath of the rebellion was marked by a public outcry both in Jamaica and Britain. The harsh measures taken by the authorities, particularly the execution of George William Gordon, a Jamaican politician and advocate for the rights of Black Jamaicans, drew significant criticism. Gordon's trial, characterised by irregularities and lack of substantial evidence, raised international condemnation and led to debates about the limits of colonial power (Heuman, 107-110).

Despite the immediate suppression of the rebellion, its legacy was profound. The outcry over Eyre's actions led to his recall and a reevaluation of British colonial policy in the Caribbean. The Morant Bay Rebellion became a pivotal moment in the push for social and political reforms. It prompted discussions about the need for greater representation, land reform, and the recognition of basic human rights for the people in the colonies (“Defeat")(Heuman, 110-111).

The events of 1865 compelled the British government to institute reforms in Jamaica, including changes in governance, land tenure, and the extension of political rights to a wider segment of the population. It laid the groundwork for eventual moves towards independence and reshaped the discourse on race, power, and governance within the British Empire.

The Morant Bay Rebellion remains a crucial chapter in Jamaica's history, symbolizing the struggle for justice, equality, and self-determination. This event had an indelible impact on the course of colonial rule and the fight against oppression beyond Jamaica's shores (Semmel, 11).

== References ==

* Flores , Rachael A. The Power of “Retributive Justice”: Punishment and the Body in the Morant Bay Rebellion, 1865. 15 May 2011, www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/power-retributive-justice-punishment-body-morant/docview/870035413/se-2?accountid=13621. Accessed 29 Nov. 2023.

* Heuman, Gad . “1865: Prologue to the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica.” New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, vol. 65, no. 3/4, 1991, pp. 107–127. Brill, brill.com/view/journals/nwig/65/3-4/nwig.65.issue-3-4.xml. Accessed 29 Nov. 2023.

* Semmel, Bernard. “The Issue of “Race” in the British Reaction to the Morant Bay Uprising of 1865.” Caribbean Studies, vol. 2, no. 3, 1962, pp. 3–15, www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25611713.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3A806b20be1c47750f9d42dad89874ceb3&ab_segments=&origin=&initiator=&acceptTC=1. Accessed 29 Nov. 2023.

‌

Margaret Atwood

2023-12-11T20:14:02Z

Pankratz:

18 November 1939 (Ottawa). Canadian prizewinning author. Her publications include over 50 books of various genres such as fiction and graphic novels as well as various poems and short stories.

== Early life and education ==
Margaret Atwood was born as the second of three children of Carl Edmund Atwood and Margaret Killam Atwood. The family spent the first years of her childhood in Ottawa and moved to Toronto in 1946, after her father, an entomologist, took on a job at the University of Toronto. Later, Atwood moved to the USA and Europe and finally came back to Toronto in 1992, where she currently lives. Atwood studied at Victoria College at the University of Toronto, where she graduated with honors in English language and literature in 1961 and later earned her master's degree in English literature at Radcliffe College, Cambridge in 1962. There she met her first husband James Polk, whom she married in 1966. After finishing college, Atwood worked at several universities in Canada, the USA and Australia. In 1973, she and James Polk got divorced and Atwood moves in with Graeme Gibson. In 1976, she gave birth to their daughter Eleanor Jess Atwood Gibson.

== Career ==
Atwood started writing at the age of five years, she wrote for the literary magazine Clan Call while attending the Leaside High School in Toronto and continued working for magazines during her time at Victoria College. In 1961, Atwood published ''Double Persephone'', a poetry collection which was awarded with the E.J. Pratt Award for Poetry. In 1966, she published the next collection, ''The Circle Games'' which was again awarded, just as many of her later works.

Her works show her great interest in political and feminist topics, as her prizewinning novel ''The Handmaid's Tale'', which later became a TV series, demonstrates. It shows forms of dictatorship, tyranny, torture and the reality of violence.

=== Works Cited ===
"Biography." ''Margaret Atwood'', 2013-2022. https://margaretatwood.ca. Accessed December 7 2023. 
Rigney, Barbara Hill. ''Margaret Atwood''. London, 1987 
Rosenberg, Jerome H. ''Margaret Atwood''. Boston, 1984.

Margaret Atwood

2023-12-11T20:13:33Z

Pankratz:

18 November 1939 (Ottawa). Canadian prizewinning author. Her publications include over 50 books of various genres such as fiction and graphic novels as well as various poems and short stories.

== Early life and education ==
Margaret Atwood was born as the second of three children of Carl Edmund Atwood and Margaret Killam Atwood. The family spent the first years of her childhood in Ottawa and moved to Toronto in 1946, after her father, an entomologist, took on a job at the University of Toronto. Later, Atwood moved to the USA and Europe and finally came back to Toronto in 1992, where she currently lives. Atwood studied at Victoria College at the University of Toronto, where she graduated with honors in English language and literature in 1961 and later earned her master's degree in English literature at Radcliffe College, Cambridge in 1962. There she met her first husband James Polk, whom she married in 1966. After finishing college, Atwood worked at several universities in Canada, the USA and Australia. In 1973, she and James Polk got divorced and Atwood moves in with Graeme Gibson. In 1976, she gave birth to their daughter Eleanor Jess Atwood Gibson.

== Career ==
Atwood started writing at the age of five years, she wrote for the literary magazine Clan Call while attending the Leaside High School in Toronto and continued working for magazines during her time at Victoria College. In 1961, Atwood published ''Double Persephone'', a poetry collection which was awarded with the E.J. Pratt Award for Poetry. In 1966, she published the next collection, ''The Circle Games'' which was again awarded, just as many of her later works.

Her works show her great interest in political and feminist topics, as her prizewinning novel [[''The Handmaid's Tale'']], which later became a TV series, demonstrates. It shows forms of dictatorship, tyranny, torture and the reality of violence.

=== Works Cited ===
"Biography." ''Margaret Atwood'', 2013-2022. https://margaretatwood.ca. Accessed December 7 2023. 
Rigney, Barbara Hill. ''Margaret Atwood''. London, 1987 
Rosenberg, Jerome H. ''Margaret Atwood''. Boston, 1984.

Battle of Waterloo

2023-12-11T20:08:45Z

Pankratz:

18 June 1815. Final battle of the Napoleonic Wars and the end of Napoleon Bonaparte's rule as the Emperor of the French. French army versus the British-led Allied forces commanded by the Duke of Wellington, and the Prussian army led by General Blücher.

=== Background ===
In 1814, Napoleon had been forced to resign. He was banished to Elba, an island in the Mediterranian. However, he was able to leave Elba in February 1815 and swiftly regained his position of authority and power in France. Napoleon's return to France resulted in an era known as the Hundred Days, in which it was his intention to reestablish the French Empire and to solidify his rule once again.

Napoleon's return and the danger it opposed resulted in the formation of the Seventh Coalition. Among the allies of this coalition were Russia, Britain, Austria and Prussia. Their shared objective was to overthrow Napoleon. Napoleon's ultimate goal was to split up and destroy the coalition forces before they could come together.

Napoleon faced General Blücher's Prussian army at the Battle of Ligny on 16 June 1815. At the same time, French forces and an Anglo-Dutch-Belgian combined force under the command of the Duke of Wellington fought in the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussian Army was weakened by this prior attack but successfully withdrew from the Battle of Ligny. With the Prussians withdrawn, Napoleon saw an opportunity to defeat Wellington at Quatre Bras on the morning of 17 June. Wellington recognized the danger and began withdrawing toward Waterloo.

=== The Battle ===
Three different armies fought in the Battle of Waterloo: Napoleon's Armée du Nord, a multinational army under Wellington, and a Prussian army commanded by General Blücher. Wellington's choice of Waterloo as the location for the battle was a major factor for success. The Allies benefited strategically from their location, which included a secure withdrawal route, better visibility, flank protection, control of important buildings, and a defensible ridge.

The battle began with Napoleon attacking key positions of the Allies, including Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte. Fierce fighting ensued as the French attempted to break through the Allied lines. The Prussian army arrived to assist the Allies as the battle progressed. The Prussians changed the direction of the battle by engaging the French forces on the eastern flank.
The center of the Allied lines was the target of the French last attack. The British defensive positions and squares withstood several attacks. After regrouping and fortifying themselves, the Prussians decisively counterattacked the French right flank. The French position was weakened by this well-planned attack, which greatly aided the Allies in their victory. The French forces started to withdraw as the British held their ground and the Prussians pressed in on their right flank.

=== Aftermath ===
The Battle of Waterloo has inflicted considerable losses on both opposing forces. The Hundred Days of Napoleon's return from exile came to an end with the defeat at Waterloo.
Following his defeat, Napoleon's support from the French public and his own army vanished, which ultimately led to Napoleon's abdication on 22 June 1815. Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he spent the rest of his life. It sparked the First French Empire's demise and Napoleon's second and final abdication as Emperor of France. The Battle of Waterloo established a historical turning point, known as the Pax Britannica, that separated decades of largely peaceful living between a string of European wars [Pax Britannica is a very tricky term. Please try to rephrase].

=== Sources ===
Black, Jeremy. ''The Battle of Waterloo.'' Random House, 2010.

Gleig, George Robert. ''Story of the Battle of Waterloo.'' London: J. Murray, 1849. [Maybe a bit outdated?]

Kennedy, James Shaw. ''Notes on the Battle of Waterloo.'' London: J. Murray, 1865. [Maybe also a bit outdated?]

Teague, Lieutenant-Colonel George E. "Waterloo and Gettysburg: A Campaign Comparison." [Publishing House?] 2014.

Veve, Thomas D. "Wellington and the Army of Occupation in France, 1815–1818." ''The International History Review'' 11.1 (1989): 98-108.

Continental System

2023-12-11T19:57:17Z

Pankratz:

System of naval blockade used during the Napoleonic War.

'''The Creation of the Continental System
'''
At first, the British took all French and Dutch ships in British ports and controlled the trade with neutral continental states, finally set a blockade of the Elbe and Weser rivers between June and July 1803. This blockade was an enclosure of the German cities followed by an extension to all French parts and the North sea. In response, France enforced policies to limit British trade with the continent through negotiating political coalitions. Their aim was to impose tariffs upon British exports and enforcement of other types of constraint. Napoleon did not hesitate to react: He placed two military blockades along the European coasts including the route between Brest to the Elbe river and from Ostend to the mouth of the Seine. The decisive turning point of this economic embargo was the installment of the sea blockade by Napoleon in 1806. The Berlin Decree issued in 1806 stipulated the prohibition of all trade activities with Britain, all British persons in French areas were henceforth prisoners of war, all trade in British goods was no longer allowed and all British goods must be offered at fair prize, and British ships were forbidden to call at continental ports. Yet the British did not comply with these restrictions and therefore enforced laws aiming at tightening the blockade of France and thereby regulating the trade of British enemies with their colonies. Furthermore, they brought forward constraint of French maritime trade with neutrals. The so-called First Order of Council forced neutral ships to call at British ports before proceeding to the continent.

'''Intentions of the Economic Warfare'''

These artificially created trade barriers brought about severe economic repercussions on both sides. The French system of blockade is quite often represented as "self-blockade" as it equalled more or less a tariff and quota system to restrict British exports by isolating it from the rest of continental Europe. After all, the measures of Napoleon were supposed to lower British exports and simultaneously increase its imports. Britain's Exchequer and overall economy was to be weakened by forcing it into foreign expenditure. This policy was aimed at reducing British revenues and outflowing of species. After all, Britain was supposed to not have any means to fund continental nations to lure them into an alliance against France. In the long run, Britain's specie supply was supposed to be cut and France's industrialization boosted. With regards to the objectives of the respective war parties, France was willing to maintain a continental alliance by military force and economic agreement and simultaneously, as mentioned before, wanted to expand its industry. Vice versa, the British wanted to remain powerful in economic and military terms by paying subsidies to draw continental nations away from French impact.

'''Implications'''

These economic conflicts did not only concern Britain, France or continental Europe, but also the United States. Since the US felt offended by the measures taken against continental Europe, they interfered, which brought about the Anglo-American War in 1812. The Jefferson Embargo of 1807 was issued in response to the continental policy carried out by the British and forbade any ship of belligerent parties who had taken measures against neutrals to call at America's ports. And he forbade American ships to leave these ports. After that, the proportion of grain from the US was in decline, it amounted to a twentieth of the proportion imported in 1807, bread prices rose significantly and the country was driven into a manufacturing crisis. In return, goods from the British colonies did not reach the US or the European continent. In general, the naval blockade paid off for France. In 1805 11841 cargoes of naval timber called at Britain's ports, whereas the proportion decreased to 27 ships in 1808 [this needs a source]. Simultaneously, the price for imported wood increased significantly. Due to the aforementioned low salaries and high bread prices due to lack of grain, dissatisfaction grew across England accompanied by waves of uprisings and strikes in many industrial areas, such as Manchester. Napoleon's aim to strike against British exports did, at least to some extent, pay off: British exports still accounting for 37 per cent in 1805, decreased to 25 per cent by 1808 [this needs a source]. The rate of growth of British exports during the years 1902-1814 fell from 6.4 per cent to 3.1 per cent per annum. Even the rate of imports declined form 5.4 per cent to 1.2 per cent during the same time span [source?]. However, British exports of cotton textiles increased and the Levant, Brazil and Spanish colonies were installed as new market for compensation. Besides, inflation struck the continent hard, such as the French hinterlands. France was also suffering from increasing prices for raw materials which were needed for manufacturing. Simultaneously, as in Britain the cotton textile industry was rising apart from chemicals and beet sugar production. France was thus equally affected by the aforementioned strategies.

Sources:

Davis, Lance E., and Stanley L. Engerman. ''Naval Blockades in Peace and War. An Economic History since 1750''. Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Esdaile, Charles. "Britain and the Napoleonic Wars." ''The Practice of Strategy: From Alexander the Great to the Present'', edited by Gray, Colin S. and John Andreas Olsen, Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 176-195.

Lefebvre, [First Name?]. ''Napoleon''. Routledge, 2010.

Elementary Education Act 1870

2023-12-11T19:47:24Z

Pankratz:

Elizabeth Browning

2023-12-11T19:44:19Z

Pankratz:

6 March 1806 (Kelloe) - 29 June 1861 (Florence). Elizabeth Browning (full name Elizabeth Barrett Browning) was a popular English poet in the Victorian era.

'''Her Poems:'''

'''Bibliography:'''

Danzer, Gerhard. ''Europa, deine Frau: Beiträge zu einer weiblichen Kulturgeschichte''. Springer, 2015.

Flood, Alison. "Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Five Best Poems." ''The Guardian'', 6 March 2014, www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/06/elizabeth-browning-five-best-poems. Accessed 9 December 2023.

Morant Bay Rebellion

2023-11-28T19:20:56Z

Pankratz:

11 October 1865. Anti-colonialist rising in Jamaica.

The Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865 stands as a watershed moment in Jamaica's history, serving as a catalyst for significant changes in British colonial rule and igniting discussions about racial inequality, social justice, and governance. The movement was a pivotal moment in the fight against colonial injustice, highlighting the complexities of power, race, and governance during that era and setting the stage for discussions on social reforms and equality.

== Background ==

The rebellion was sparked by a series of injustices and grievances faced by the impoverished and disenfranchised Black population in Jamaica. Under the leadership of preacher and activist Paul Bogle, who became an emblematic figure in the fight against oppression, the rebellion emerged as a culmination of frustration due to exploitative land tenure systems, poor living conditions, and limited political representation (Heuman [exact reference has to be given].

The catalyst for the uprising was an incident in Stony Gut, where Bogle, seeking justice for a man unjustly arrested, led a group to the Morant Bay courthouse. However, the peaceful demonstration quickly turned violent, leading to the death of several individuals, including the local custos (magistrate), and the courthouse was set ablaze (Chivallon and Howard [exact reference/page has to be given].

== British Involvement ==
The British response to the rebellion was brutal and severe. Governor Edward Eyre declared martial law, leading to widespread arrests, executions, and a merciless crackdown on the local population. Hundreds were killed, and many more faced floggings and arbitrary punishment, often without fair trials (Chivallon and Howard [exact reference/page has to be given]).

== Aftermath ==

The aftermath of the rebellion was marked by a public outcry both in Jamaica and Britain. The harsh measures taken by the authorities, particularly the execution of George William Gordon, a Jamaican politician and advocate for the rights of Black Jamaicans, drew significant criticism. Gordon's trial, characterised by irregularities and lack of substantial evidence, raised international condemnation and led to debates about the limits of colonial power (Heuman [exact reference/page?]).

Despite the immediate suppression of the rebellion, its legacy was profound. The outcry over Eyre's actions led to his recall and a reevaluation of British colonial policy in the Caribbean. The Morant Bay Rebellion became a pivotal moment in the push for social and political reforms. It prompted discussions about the need for greater representation, land reform, and the recognition of basic human rights for the people in the colonies (“Defeat").

The events of 1865 compelled the British government to institute reforms in Jamaica, including changes in governance, land tenure, and the extension of political rights to a wider segment of the population. It laid the groundwork for eventual moves towards independence and reshaped the discourse on race, power, and governance within the British Empire.

The Morant Bay Rebellion remains a crucial chapter in Jamaica's history, symbolizing the struggle for justice, equality, and self-determination. Its impact reverberated far beyond the shores of Jamaica, leaving an indelible mark on the trajectory [mixing metaphors] of colonial rule and the fight against oppression in the broader context of global history (Semmel [exact reference/page?]).

== References ==
Missing.

Morant Bay Rebellion

2023-11-28T19:20:19Z

Pankratz:

11 October 1865. Anti-colonialist rising in Jamaica.

The Morant Bay Rebellion of 1865 stands as a watershed moment in Jamaica's history, serving as a catalyst for significant changes in British colonial rule and igniting discussions about racial inequality, social justice, and governance. The movement was a pivotal moment in the fight against colonial injustice, highlighting the complexities of power, race, and governance during that era and setting the stage for discussions on social reforms and equality.

== Background ==

The rebellion was sparked by a series of injustices and grievances faced by the impoverished and disenfranchised Black population in Jamaica. Under the leadership of preacher and activist Paul Bogle, who became an emblematic figure in the fight against oppression, the rebellion emerged as a culmination of frustration due to exploitative land tenure systems, poor living conditions, and limited political representation (Heuman [exact reference has to be given].

The catalyst for the uprising was an incident in Stony Gut, where Bogle, seeking justice for a man unjustly arrested, led a group to the Morant Bay courthouse. However, the peaceful demonstration quickly turned violent, leading to the death of several individuals, including the local custos (magistrate), and the courthouse was set ablaze (Chivallon and Howard [exact reference/page has to be given].

== British Involvement ==
The British response to the rebellion was brutal and severe. Governor Edward Eyre declared martial law, leading to widespread arrests, executions, and a merciless crackdown on the local population. Hundreds were killed, and many more faced floggings and arbitrary punishment, often without fair trials (Chivallon and Howard [exact reference/page has to be given]).

== Aftermath ==

The aftermath of the rebellion was marked by a public outcry both in Jamaica and Britain. The harsh measures taken by the authorities, particularly the execution of George William Gordon, a Jamaican politician and advocate for the rights of Black Jamaicans, drew significant criticism. Gordon's trial, characterised by irregularities and lack of substantial evidence, raised international condemnation and led to debates about the limits of colonial power (Heuman [exact reference/page?]).

== Legacy ==
Despite the immediate suppression of the rebellion, its legacy was profound. The outcry over Eyre's actions led to his recall and a reevaluation of British colonial policy in the Caribbean. The Morant Bay Rebellion became a pivotal moment in the push for social and political reforms. It prompted discussions about the need for greater representation, land reform, and the recognition of basic human rights for the people in the colonies (“Defeat").

The events of 1865 compelled the British government to institute reforms in Jamaica, including changes in governance, land tenure, and the extension of political rights to a wider segment of the population. It laid the groundwork for eventual moves towards independence and reshaped the discourse on race, power, and governance within the British Empire.

The Morant Bay Rebellion remains a crucial chapter in Jamaica's history, symbolizing the struggle for justice, equality, and self-determination. Its impact reverberated far beyond the shores of Jamaica, leaving an indelible mark on the trajectory [mixing metaphors] of colonial rule and the fight against oppression in the broader context of global history (Semmel [exact reference/page?]).

== References ==
Missing.

Romanticism

2023-11-28T19:09:29Z

Pankratz:

A literary, artistic, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century and reached its peak during the 19th century. It was a reaction against the rationalism and Enlightenment ideals of the 18th century and emphasized emotion, individualism, imagination, and a deep appreciation of nature (Curran 43, 46).

The Romantic era was marked by significant societal transformations, including the Industrial Revolution as well as the rise of liberal movements.
Additionally the early 19th century saw the rise of various religious movements that explored alternative spiritual paths and drew on a range of religious and philosophical traditions. Some Romantic writers critiqued organized religion, questioning its dogmas. Percy Bysshe Shelley, for example, was known to be an atheist (Clark 329).

Romantic poets used poetry to explicitly express their thoughts on political and social issues [so did [[Alexander Pope|poets in the 17th and 18th centuries]]]. They rejected the neoclassical style, which was prevalent during the 18th century. Neoclassical poets sought to express clear and rational ideas, often avoiding excessive emotionalism or personal subjectivity. In contrast to this, romantic poets adopted a more personal and impressionistic approach, expressing their subjective experiences through their works (Dart 612). Perhaps the most enduring legacy of Romanticism is the dominance of the lyric poem. These poems, often spoken in the first person, explore the inner workings of the poet's heart and mind, finding correspondences in the natural world (Esterhammer 87). The ''Lyrical Ballads'' by [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] exemplifies this shift in poetry, emphasizing powerful feelings and introspection.

The Romantic era produced an array of poetic voices, from the older generation of [[William Blake]], Wordsworth and Coleridge to younger poets like [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] (Clark 329). Women poets like Charlotte Smith, and Mary Robinson also made significant contributions (Curran 38).

Bibliography:

Clark, Ashley. “Romanticism.“ ''The Cambridge History of Atheism'', edited by Stephen Bullivant and Michael Ruse, Cambridge University Press, 2021, pp. 329-345.

Curran, Stuart. ''Poetic Form and British Romanticism.'' Oxford University Press, 1986.

Dart, Gregory. “Practical Criticism.“ ''The Oxford Handbook of British Romanticism'', edited by David Duff, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 608-624.

Esterhammer, Angela. “The 1820s and Beyond.“ ''The Oxford Handbook of British Romanticism'', edited by David Duff, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 74-90.

Talk:Romanticism

2023-11-28T19:06:26Z

Pankratz:

Cut the following passage, because it has nothing to do with Romanticism. If you want to include it, the connections have to be made clear.

One of these was Chartism [not a liberal movement], which emerged as a working-class movement advocating for political reform. The People’s Charter gained support in industrial towns and put political pressure on the elites. Even though Chartism as a political movement did not achieve its goals at the time, the demands of the People’s Charter were fulfilled with the reform acts of the political system. The first reform bill laid the basis for all later reforms, gradually expanding the voting rights and representation in Parliament. Another turning point in British history, highlighting the need for political and social reform was the [[Peterloo Massacre]] of 1819, where political tension erupted into violence.

Further changes were middle-class education, and political instability all hovered over by the [[French Revolution]] (Curran 14). However, the revolutionary spirit was also evident in Great Britain as a result of the colonial failures - the American Revolutionary War of the 1780s and growing discontent and resistance against British rule in India. [what does this have to do with Romanticism?]

Romanticism

2023-11-28T19:06:10Z

Pankratz:

A literary, artistic, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century and reached its peak during the 19th century. It was a reaction against the rationalism and Enlightenment ideals of the 18th century and emphasized emotion, individualism, imagination, and a deep appreciation of nature (Curran 43, 46).

The Romantic era was marked by significant societal transformations, including the Industrial Revolution as well as the rise of liberal movements.
Additionally the early 19th century saw the rise of various religious movements that explored alternative spiritual paths and drew on a range of religious and philosophical traditions. Some Romantic writers critiqued organized religion, questioning its dogmas. Percy Bysshe Shelley, for example, was known to be an atheist (Clark 329).

Romantic poets used poetry to explicitly express their thoughts on political and social issues. They rejected the neoclassical style, which was prevalent during the 18th century. Neoclassical poets sought to express clear and rational ideas, often avoiding excessive emotionalism or personal subjectivity. In contrast to this, romantic poets adopted a more personal and impressionistic approach, expressing their subjective experiences through their works (Dart 612). Perhaps the most enduring legacy of Romanticism is the dominance of the lyric poem. These poems, often spoken in the first person, explore the inner workings of the poet's heart and mind, finding correspondences in the natural world (Esterhammer 87). The ''Lyrical Ballads'' by [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] exemplifies this shift in poetry, emphasizing powerful feelings and introspection.

The Romantic era produced an array of poetic voices, from the older generation of [[William Blake]], Wordsworth and Coleridge to younger poets like [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] (Clark 329). Women poets like Charlotte Smith, and Mary Robinson also made significant contributions (Curran 38).

Bibliography:

Clark, Ashley. “Romanticism.“ ''The Cambridge History of Atheism'', edited by Bullivant, Stephen and Michael Ruse, Cambridge University Press, 2021, pp. 329-345.

Curran, Stuart. ''Poetic Form and British Romanticism.'' Oxford University Press, 1986.

Dart, Gregory. “Practical Criticism.“ ''The Oxford Handbook of British Romanticism'', edited by David Duff, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 608-624.

Esterhammer, Angela. “The 1820s and Beyond.“ ''The Oxford Handbook of British Romanticism'', edited by David Duff, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 74-90.

Talk:Romanticism

2023-11-28T19:02:50Z

Pankratz:

Romanticism

2023-11-28T19:01:52Z

Pankratz:

A literary, artistic, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century and reached its peak during the 19th century. It was a reaction against the rationalism and Enlightenment ideals of the 18th century and emphasized emotion, individualism, imagination, and a deep appreciation of nature (Curran 43, 46).

The Romantic era was marked by significant societal transformations, including the Industrial Revolution as well as the rise of liberal movements.
Additionally the early 19th century saw the rise of various religious movements that explored alternative spiritual paths and drew on a range of religious and philosophical traditions. Some Romantic writers critiqued organized religion, questioning its dogmas. Percy Bysshe Shelley, for example, was known for his criticism of institutionalized religion (Clark 329). Further changes were middle class education, and political instability all hovered over by the [[French Revolution]] (Curran 14). However, the revolutionary spirit was also evident in Great Britain as a result of the colonial failures - the American Revolutionary War of the 1780s and growing discontent and resistance against British rule in India.

Romantic poets used poetry to explicitly express their thoughts on political and social issues. They rejected the neoclassical style, which was prevalent during the 18th century. Neoclassical poets sought to express clear and rational ideas, often avoiding excessive emotionalism or personal subjectivity. In contrast to this, romantic poets adopted a more personal and impressionistic approach, expressing their subjective experiences through their works (Dart 612). Perhaps the most enduring legacy of Romanticism is the dominance of the lyric poem. These poems, often spoken in the first person, explore the inner workings of the poet's heart and mind, finding correspondences in the natural world (Esterhammer 87). The ''Lyrical Ballads'' by [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] exemplifies this shift in poetry, emphasizing powerful feelings and introspection.

The Romantic era produced an array of poetic voices, from the older generation of [[William Blake]], Wordsworth and Coleridge to younger poets like [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] (Clark 329). Women poets like Charlotte Smith, and Mary Robinson also made significant contributions (Curran 38).

Bibliography:

Clark, Ashley. “Romanticism.“ ''The Cambridge History of Atheism'', edited by Bullivant, Stephen and Michael Ruse, Cambridge University Press, 2021, pp. 329-345.

Curran, Stuart. ''Poetic Form and British Romanticism.'' Oxford University Press, 1986.

Dart, Gregory. “Practical Criticism.“ ''The Oxford Handbook of British Romanticism'', edited by David Duff, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 608-624.

Esterhammer, Angela. “The 1820s and Beyond.“ ''The Oxford Handbook of British Romanticism'', edited by David Duff, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 74-90.

Talk:Romanticism

2023-11-09T23:00:59Z

Pankratz: Created page with "Please revise. Too many vague allusions and very general content."

Please revise. Too many vague allusions and very general content.

Percy Bysshe Shelley

2023-11-09T22:59:46Z

Pankratz:

1792-1822. English writer and poet of [[Romanticism]].

He was born 4 August 1792 near Horsham in Sussex into an aristocratic family and died 7 July 1822 in the gulf of La Spezia. Together with [[William Wordsworth]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], George Gordon, [[Lord Byron]] and [[John Keats]] he was one of the most important English romantic poets.[1]

During his time at Oxford University he published his first gothic novel ''Zastrozzi'' (1810). At that time he already revolted against the repressive social conventions and was in favor of the ideals for the [[Enlightenment]] and the [[French Revolution]]. [2] In 1811 Shelley was expelled from Oxford for publishing ''The Necessity Of Atheism'' which he wrote together with his friend [[Thomas Jefferson Hogg]]. Both were neo-platonists, followers of a mythical philosophy, and defenders of atheism. [2] After college his father also disinherited Shelley after his [[Elopement|elopement]] and marriage with 16-year old Harriet Westbrook, the daughter of a London tavern owner. He travelled to Wales and Ireland where he also tried to get politically involved. He wrote the political scripts ''Address to the Irish People'' and ''Proposals for an Association'' in 1812 fighting for more rights of the Irish people.[1]

In 1813 Shelley published his first romantic poem ''Queen Mab'' where he presents in dramatic images the historical course of human suffering. He exposes the depressing status in past and present times where people suffer from the reign of kings and the atrocity of the church and where corruption, greed for power and money, commercialisation and above all hypocrisy destroys the individual and society.[4]

'Commerce has set the mark of selfishness,
The signet of its all-enslaving power,
Upon a shining ore, and called it gold;
Before whose image bow the vulgar great,
The vainly rich, the miserable proud,
The mob of peasants, nobles, priests and kings,
And with blind feelings reverence the power
That grinds them to the dust of misery.
But in the temple of their hireling hearts
Gold is a living god and rules in scorn
All earthly things but virtue.(V, 53-63)[5]

In a look to the future he then draws a more optimistic image of a better reconciled world.[4]

Although still married to Harriet he fell in love with Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, the daughter of his friend [[William Godwin]] and his wife, the early feminist and writer [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]. In 1816 Harriet drowned herself in the Serpentine. Percy Shelley and Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin married and their daughter Clara was born. Later [[Mary Shelley]] (1797-1851) became famous due to her novel ''Frankenstein or the Modern Prometheus'' (1818). Due to health problems and the fear that his two children of his first marriage could be taken away from him, Percy Shelley and his family moved to Italy in 1818, where two of his children died. In 1819 he wrote the tragedy ''The Cenci''. [1]

Shelley's interest of writing shifted from his radically political ideas of reforms to more literary aspects.[2] His work ''A Defence of Poetry'' (written in 1821, published in 1840) is a programmatic presentation of the central ideas of Romanticism. Poetry and art were seen as central means to reconcile human suffering and alienation.[2] Another example of romantic poetry is the poem ''Adonaïs'' written in the tradition of the English pastoral elegy as reaction on the death of John Keats. In 1822 Percy was on a sailing trip when his small schooner sank and he drowned. His body was washed ashore at Viareggio, where, in the presence of Shelley's friends [[Lord Byron]] and [[Leigh Hunt]], he was burned on the beach. Shelley was later buried in Rome on a cemetery where also John Keats is buried.[3] Mary Shelley returned to England and published in 1824 ''Posthumous Poems of Percy Bysshe Shelley'' and in 1839 ''The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley''.

== Major works ==

'''1810'''

''Zastrozzi''

'''1811'''

''The Necessity of Atheism''

'''1813'''

''Queen Mab: A Philosophical Poem''

'''1815'''

''Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude''

''Wolfstein; or, The Mysterious Bandit''

'''1817'''

''Hymn to Intellectual Beauty''

''Laon and Cythna; or, The Revolution of the Golden City''

''The Revolt of Islam, A Poem, in Twelve Cantos: A Vision of the Nineteenth Century''

''History of a Six Weeks' Tour through a part of France, Switzerland, Germany, and Holland'' (written with Mary Shelley)

'''1819'''

''The Cenci, A Tragedy, in Five Acts''

''Ode to the West Wind''

''The Masque of Anarchy''

''Men of England''

''England in 1819''

''The Witch of Atlas''

''A Philosophical View of Reform''

'''1821'''

''Adonaïs''

''A Defence of Poetry'' (first published in 1840)

== Sources ==

[1] Drescher, Horst W. ''Lexikon der Englischen Literatur.'' Stuttgart: Kröner, 1979.

[2] Hühn, Peter. ''Geschichte der englischen Lyrik 1.'' Tübingen, Basel: A. Francke Verlag, 1995.

[3] The Keats-Shelley House. 21 Nov. 2009 <[http://www.keats-shelley-house.org/index.php]>.

[4] Höhne, Horst. ''Percy Bysshe Shelley, Leben und Werk.'' Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag, 1998.

[5] The complete poetical works. 28 Nov 2009. <[http://www.bartleby.com/139/]>

Percy Bysshe Shelley

2023-11-09T22:58:59Z

Pankratz:

1792-1822. English writer and poet of [[Romanticism]].

He was born 4 August 1792 near Horsham in Sussex into an aristocratic family and died 7 July 1822 in the gulf of La Spezia. Together with [[William Wordsworth]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], George Gordon, Lord Byron and [[John Keats]] he was one of the most important English romantic poets.[1]

During his time at Oxford University he published his first gothic novel ''Zastrozzi'' (1810). At that time he already revolted against the repressive social conventions and was in favor of the ideals for the [[Enlightenment]] and the [[French Revolution]]. [2] In 1811 Shelley was expelled from Oxford for publishing ''The Necessity Of Atheism'' which he wrote together with his friend [[Thomas Jefferson Hogg]]. Both were neo-platonists, followers of a mythical philosophy, and defenders of atheism. [2] After college his father also disinherited Shelley after his [[Elopement|elopement]] and marriage with 16-year old Harriet Westbrook, the daughter of a London tavern owner. He travelled to Wales and Ireland where he also tried to get politically involved. He wrote the political scripts ''Address to the Irish People'' and ''Proposals for an Association'' in 1812 fighting for more rights of the Irish people.[1]

In 1813 Shelley published his first romantic poem ''Queen Mab'' where he presents in dramatic images the historical course of human suffering. He exposes the depressing status in past and present times where people suffer from the reign of kings and the atrocity of the church and where corruption, greed for power and money, commercialisation and above all hypocrisy destroys the individual and society.[4]

'Commerce has set the mark of selfishness,
The signet of its all-enslaving power,
Upon a shining ore, and called it gold;
Before whose image bow the vulgar great,
The vainly rich, the miserable proud,
The mob of peasants, nobles, priests and kings,
And with blind feelings reverence the power
That grinds them to the dust of misery.
But in the temple of their hireling hearts
Gold is a living god and rules in scorn
All earthly things but virtue.(V, 53-63)[5]

In a look to the future he then draws a more optimistic image of a better reconciled world.[4]

Although still married to Harriet he fell in love with Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, the daughter of his friend [[William Godwin]] and his wife, the early feminist and writer [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]. In 1816 Harriet drowned herself in the Serpentine. Percy Shelley and Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin married and their daughter Clara was born. Later [[Mary Shelley]] (1797-1851) became famous due to her novel ''Frankenstein or the Modern Prometheus'' (1818). Due to health problems and the fear that his two children of his first marriage could be taken away from him, Percy Shelley and his family moved to Italy in 1818, where two of his children died. In 1819 he wrote the tragedy ''The Cenci''. [1]

Shelley's interest of writing shifted from his radically political ideas of reforms to more literary aspects.[2] His work ''A Defence of Poetry'' (written in 1821, published in 1840) is a programmatic presentation of the central ideas of Romanticism. Poetry and art were seen as central means to reconcile human suffering and alienation.[2] Another example of romantic poetry is the poem ''Adonaïs'' written in the tradition of the English pastoral elegy as reaction on the death of John Keats. In 1822 Percy was on a sailing trip when his small schooner sank and he drowned. His body was washed ashore at Viareggio, where, in the presence of Shelley's friends [[Lord Byron]] and [[Leigh Hunt]], he was burned on the beach. Shelley was later buried in Rome on a cemetery where also John Keats is buried.[3] Mary Shelley returned to England and published in 1824 ''Posthumous Poems of Percy Bysshe Shelley'' and in 1839 ''The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley''.

== Major works ==

'''1810'''

''Zastrozzi''

'''1811'''

''The Necessity of Atheism''

'''1813'''

''Queen Mab: A Philosophical Poem''

'''1815'''

''Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude''

''Wolfstein; or, The Mysterious Bandit''

'''1817'''

''Hymn to Intellectual Beauty''

''Laon and Cythna; or, The Revolution of the Golden City''

''The Revolt of Islam, A Poem, in Twelve Cantos: A Vision of the Nineteenth Century''

''History of a Six Weeks' Tour through a part of France, Switzerland, Germany, and Holland'' (written with Mary Shelley)

'''1819'''

''The Cenci, A Tragedy, in Five Acts''

''Ode to the West Wind''

''The Masque of Anarchy''

''Men of England''

''England in 1819''

''The Witch of Atlas''

''A Philosophical View of Reform''

'''1821'''

''Adonaïs''

''A Defence of Poetry'' (first published in 1840)

== Sources ==

[1] Drescher, Horst W. ''Lexikon der Englischen Literatur.'' Stuttgart: Kröner, 1979.

[2] Hühn, Peter. ''Geschichte der englischen Lyrik 1.'' Tübingen, Basel: A. Francke Verlag, 1995.

[3] The Keats-Shelley House. 21 Nov. 2009 <[http://www.keats-shelley-house.org/index.php]>.

[4] Höhne, Horst. ''Percy Bysshe Shelley, Leben und Werk.'' Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag, 1998.

[5] The complete poetical works. 28 Nov 2009. <[http://www.bartleby.com/139/]>

William Blake

2023-11-09T22:57:02Z

Pankratz:

28 November 1757 - 12 August 1827. Counted among the leading early romanticists.

Already talented as a young boy, he started an apprenticeship as an engraver and afterwards studied at the [[Royal Academy of Arts|Royal Academy]], where he exhibited his first pictures.
Today Blake is most famous for his [[poetry]]; his most important works include ''Songs of Innocence'' and ''Songs of Experience''. He also finished two epics: ''Milton'' and ''Jerusalem''. However, in his own times he was primarily known as an engraver and painter. He illustrated not only his own works but also those of other writers, e.g. Dante Alighieri’s ''Divine Comedy'' (in an edition published in 1825) or Blake’s contemporary [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]’s ''Original Stories from Real Life''.

He was also in touch with a few prominent radicals of his time, e.g. Joseph Johnson and [[Thomas Paine]]. Blake is said to have been inspired by the [[American War of Independence|American]] and [[French Revolution|French Revolutions]] and to have been a great admirer of those countries (Ferber xiii).
He also wrote a long poem called ''The French Revolution'' in which he describes the problems of [[Absolutism|French monarchy]].

William Blake’s most important technical invention was the art of relief etching, which he called “illuminated painting” and which he used for his famous illustrations.

He died 12 August 1827.

== Sources ==
Eaves, Morris: ''The Cambridge Companion to William Blake''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Ferber, Michael: ''The Poetry of William Blake''. London: Penguin, 1992.

Bentley, G.E. "William Blake." ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', first published online 28 July 1999, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/68793/William-Blake.

William Wordsworth

2023-11-09T22:55:45Z

Pankratz:

1770-1850, English poet of the early Romantic movement. [[Poet Laureate]].

[[Category:Expansion]]

Romanticism

2023-11-09T22:55:25Z

Pankratz:

A literary, artistic, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century and reached its peak during the 19th century. It was a reaction against the rationalism and Enlightenment ideals of the 18th century and emphasized emotion, individualism, imagination, and a deep appreciation of nature (Curran 43, 46).

The Romantic era was marked by significant societal transformations, including the Industrial Revolution as well as the rise of liberal movements [which ones?], religious upheavals [what? when?], middle class education, and political instability all hovered over by the [[French Revolution]] (Curran 14). However, the revolutionary spirit was also evident in Great Britain as a result of the colonial failures [which ones exactly?] of the 1780s and the political tension which occasionally erupted into violence, such as the [[Peterloo Massacre]] of 1819 (ibid). The need for change was felt in various regions of the country (Mee 31).

Romantic poets used poetry to explicitly express their thoughts on political and social issues. They rejected the neoclassical style [meaning what?] and adopted a more personal and impressionistic approach, expressing their subjective experiences through their works (Dart 612). Perhaps the most enduring legacy of Romanticism is the dominance of the lyric poem. These poems, often spoken in the first person, explore the inner workings of the poet's heart and mind, finding correspondences in the natural world (Esterhammer 87). The ''Lyrical Ballads'' by [[William Wordsworth]] and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] exemplifies this shift in poetry, emphasizing powerful feelings and introspection.

The Romantic era produced an array of poetic voices, from the older generation of [[William Blake]], Wordsworth and Coleridge to younger poets like [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] (Clark 329). Women poets like Charlotte Smith, and Mary Robinson also made significant contributions (Curran 38).

Bibliography [please adapt to the stylesheet of the English Department]:

Clark, Ashley. “Romanticism.“ The Cambridge History of Atheism, edited by Bullivant, Stephen and Michael Ruse, Cambridge University Press, 2021, pp. 329-345.

Curran, Stuart. Poetic Form and British Romanticism. Oxford University Press, 1986.

Dart, Gregory. “Practical Criticism.“ The Oxford Handbook of British Romanticism, edited by David Duff, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 608-624.

Esterhammer, Angela. “The 1820s and Beyond.“ The Oxford Handbook of British Romanticism, edited by David Duff, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 74-90.

Mee, Jon. “The Revolutionary Decade.“ The Oxford Handbook of British Romanticism, edited by David Duff, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 30-43.

Talk:Morant Bay Rebellion

2023-11-02T12:05:45Z

Pankratz: Created page with "Please do not beat around the bush in the article, but state very clearly what and when the Morant Bay Rebellion is in the very first sentence."

Please do not beat around the bush in the article, but state very clearly what and when the Morant Bay Rebellion is in the very first sentence.

North and South

2023-10-30T19:14:41Z

Pankratz:

Novel by [[Elizabeth Gaskell]], first published in 1854-1855 in serialised form.

[[Category:Expansion]]

Great Expectations

2023-10-26T19:00:07Z

Pankratz: Created page with "Novel by Charles Dickens, first published in 1860/1861. Category:Expansion"

Novel by [[Charles Dickens]], first published in 1860/1861.

[[Category:Expansion]]

Dadabhai Naoroji

2023-10-26T18:32:54Z

Pankratz: Created page with "1825-1917. Indian intellectual, politician and statesman. 1892 elected first Indian MP in Britain. Category:Expansion"

1825-1917. Indian intellectual, politician and statesman. 1892 elected first Indian MP in Britain.

[[Category:Expansion]]

New Lanark

2023-10-04T18:54:53Z

Pankratz:

Textile mill on the bank of the river Clyde in Scotland. Turned into a model factory by [[Robert Owen]], providing people with housing, shops and schools for the children. Now a World Heritage Site.

== Source ==
*http://www.newlanark.org/

[[Category:Expansion]]

Voltaire

2023-10-04T18:53:59Z

Pankratz:

1694-1778. French philosopher. Proper name: Francois-Marie Arouet.

[[Category:Stub]]