British Culture - User contributions [en]

The Wealth of Nations

2010-01-25T07:47:15Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man: Created page with '''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'' is a philosophical treatise written by Adam Smith and published in 1776. The book becomes an instant success an…'

''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'' is a philosophical treatise written by Adam Smith and published in 1776. The book becomes an instant success and is translated into French, German, Danish and Italian. Furthermore it directly influenced the British taxation laws in the 1770s.

The importance of the work lies in its foundation of national economy. Smith discusses the factors which contribute to the constant growth of the wealth of a nation and develops a complex theory of the basic principles of mordern economical systems. The improvement of social life is treated from a philosophical perspective which contains a lot of depth. Smith stresses the importance of productive work of the entire population. Hereby he describes the development of human history in four levels:

1. The age of hunters
2. The age of shepherds
3. The age of agriculture
4. The age of commerce

The fourth and final level comprises the perfect market society in which all people share the same ideology about the efficiency of work for the greater good. The view on history expressed in these four levels is decisively shaped by the enlightenment. Smiths conception leads to a free economic system where not only the factory owners but also the simple workers profit from the competition of all. Smith designs an environment which secures good conditions for the workers as a direct reaction to the bad living conditions in urban 18th-century England. In addition to that Smith introduces an organisation to support the workers comparably to a labour union.

But in contrast to that Smith's ideas about an efficient capitalist market society have been re- an misinterpreted many times since 1776 so that the original text has been marginalized overtime. Nevertheless it is still relevant today as it introduced many decisive principles of modern economy.

Bibliography:

Beck, Rudolf and Konrad Schröder (eds.). Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte, Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink, 2006.

Skinner, Andrew S. "Economic theory." Broadie, Alexander (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment, Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 178-204.

Pamela

2009-12-13T13:41:01Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

''Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded'' is an epistolary novel by Samuel Richardson, first published in 1740. It deals with the young maid Pamela Andrews who receives courtship from a man named Mr. B. who is the son of her former Lady. In the course of the novel Mr. B. kidnaps her and tries to break her resistance against him. In the end he reads her diary entries, regrets his behaviour and marries her.

----

When published, the novel quickly became a bestseller and was translated into French (1741), German (1743), Danish (1743), Swedish (1783) and Spanish (1794). The novel can therefore not only be regarded as an important work of Eighteenth-century British (and European) culture, it serves as an epitomical evidence for the rise of the novel as a popular literary genre. Because of this Richardson is often seen in line with Daniel Defoe and Henry Fielding and therefore regarded as one of the creators of the early modern novel. The cultural relevance of Pamela cannot be underestimated as it helped to introduce a shift in the public preferences of literary genres, which were rooted in the general cultural change. This change occured partly because the city (of London) began to rise as a cultural centre which tried to distinguish itself from the court more sharply.

The novel mirrors this distinction also contentwise. Mr. B. represents the aristocracy which still does not accept the new liberties of the urban bourgeoisie. Pamela belongs to this middle class, willingly defies this aristocrat and self-confidently defends her virtue. Also "virtue" is put in the centre of the bourgeois value system. In this context the notion changed from a male-oriented value referring to social and military success to a female-oriented value which shifted from purity and chastity towards sexualisation. This implication, which becomes obvious in Pamela's seduction scenes led to a renewed view on feminity. The bourgeois sexual moral layed its focus on prudery and a de-sexualized picture of the woman, whereas Pamela had an underlying erotic potential, introducing this "new" type of woman.

----

'''Bibliography:'''

Beck, Rudolf and Konrad Schröder (Eds.). ''Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte''. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.

Brewer, John. ''The Pleasures of Imagination: English Culture in the Eighteenth Century''. London: HarperCollins, 1997.

Gelfert, Hans-Dieter: ''Kleine Geschichte der englischen Literatur''. München: C. H. Beck, 2nd Edition, 2005.

Pamela

2009-12-13T13:39:42Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

''Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded'' is an epistolary novel by Samuel Richardson, first published in 1740. It deals with the young maid Pamela Andrews who receives courtship from a man named Mr. B. who is the son of her former Lady. In the course of the novel Mr. B. kidnaps her and tries to break her resistance against him. In the end he reads her diary entries, regrets his behaviour and marries her.

----

When published, the novel quickly became a bestseller and was translated into French (1741), German (1743), Danish (1743), Swedish (1783) and Spanish (1794). The novel can therefore not only be regarded as an important work of Eighteenth-century British (and European) culture, it serves as an epitomical evidence for the rise of the novel as a popular literary genre. Because of this Richardson is often seen in line with Daniel Defoe and Henry Fielding and therefore regarded as one of the creators of the early modern novel. The cultural relevance of Pamela cannot be underestimated as it helped to introduce a shift in the public preferences of literary genres, which were rooted in the general cultural change. This change occured partly because the city (of London) began to rise as a cultural centre which tried to distinguish itself from the court more sharply.

The novel mirrors this distinction also contentwise. Mr. B. represents the aristocracy which still does not accept the new liberties of the urban bourgeoisie. Pamela belongs to this middle class, willingly defies this aristocrat and self-confidently defends her virtue. Also "virtue" is put in the centre of the bourgeois value system. In this context the notion changed from a male-oriented value referring to social and military success to a female-oriented value which shifted from purity and chastity towards sexualisation. This implication, which becomes obvious in Pamela's seduction scenes led to a renewed view on feminity. The bourgeois sexual moral layed its focus on prudery and a de-sexualized picture of the woman, whereas Pamela had an underlying erotic potential, introducing this "new" type of woman.

----

'''Bibliography:'''
Beck, Rudolf and Konrad Schröder (Eds.). ''Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte''. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.
Brewer, John. ''The Pleasures of Imagination: English Culture in the Eighteenth Century''. London: HarperCollins, 1997.
Gelfert, Hans-Dieter: ''Kleine Geschichte der englischen Literatur''. München: C. H. Beck, 2nd Edition, 2005.

Pamela

2009-12-13T13:36:06Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded is an epistolary novel by Samuel Richardson, first published in 1740. It deals with the young maid Pamela Andrews who receives courtship from a man named Mr. B. who is the son of her former Lady. In the course of the novel Mr. B. kidnaps her and tries to break her resistance against him. In the end he reads her diary entries, regrets his behaviour and marries her.

When published, the novel quickly became a bestseller and was translated into French (1741), German (1743), Danish (1743), Swedish (1783) and Spanish (1794). The novel can therefore not only be regarded as an important work of Eighteenth-century British (and European) culture, it serves as an epitomical evidence for the rise of the novel as a popular literary genre. Because of this Richardson is often seen in line with Daniel Defoe and Henry Fielding and therefore regarded as one of the creators of the early modern novel. The cultural relevance of Pamela cannot be underestimated as it helped to introduce a shift in the public preferences of literary genres, which were rooted in the general cultural change. This change occured partly because the city (of London) began to rise as a cultural centre which tried to distinguish itself from the court more sharply.

The novel mirrors this distinction also contentwise. Mr. B. represents the aristocracy which still does not accept the new liberties of the urban bourgeoisie. Pamela belongs to this middle class, willingly defies this aristocrat and self-confidently defends her virtue. Also "virtue" is put in the centre of the bourgeois value system. In this context the notion changed from a male-oriented value referring to social and military success to a female-oriented value which shifted from purity and chastity towards sexualisation. This implication, which becomes obvious in Pamela's seduction scenes led to a renewed view on feminity. The bourgeois sexual moral layed its focus on prudery and a de-sexualized picture of the woman, whereas Pamela had an underlying erotic potential, introducing this "new" type of woman.

Bibliography:
Beck, Rudolf and Konrad Schröder (Eds.). ''Handbuch der britischen Kulturgeschichte''. Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2006.
Brewer, John. ''The Pleasures of Imagination: English Culture in the Eighteenth Century''. London: HarperCollins, 1997.
Gelfert, Hans-Dieter: ''Kleine Geschichte der englischen Literatur''. München: C. H. Beck, 2nd Edition, 2005.

Pamela

2009-12-13T13:31:23Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man: Created page with 'Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded is an epistolary novel by Samuel Richardson, first published in 1740. It deals with the young maid Pamela Andrews who receives courtship from a man nam…'

Seven Years' War

2009-11-06T12:33:05Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The Seven Years War (1756-1763) was a military conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Prussia got into contact with Britain and on the 16th January 1756 the secret treaty between Prussia and Britain, securing the British alliance in war, was signed. This treaty led to an Austrian-French coalition because the French felt undermined by their former ally Frederic II of Prussia. During the war it was remarkable how representative the conflict became. In the 1740s, when the cause for the conflict emerged, it had been a struggle about the Austrian territory of Silesia, a territory of special economical importance for Prussia. But in the Seven Years War the conflict escalated into a battle of the European superpowers, determining not only the political landscape in Europe but also in the colonies. Some historians consider that the constant fight for the colonies was heavily influenced by the military victory or defeat on the European battlefields. As an outcome Prussia was victorious in this war, but only because of the surprising military support of the Russian emperor Peter III. The Austrian Habsburg Empire finally had to hand over Silesia, a hard-fought territory for twenty-three years.

Bibliography:

Kunisch, Johannes. "Die militärische Bedeutung Schlesiens und das Scheitern der österreichischen Rückeroberungspläne im Siebenjährigen Krieg." Ed. Peter Baumgart. ''Kontinuität und Wandel. Schlesien zwischen Österreich und Preußen''. Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1990. 20-39.

Salmonowicz, Stanislaw. ''Preußen. Geschichte von Staat und Gesellschaft''. Herne: Stiftung Martin-Opitz-Bibliothek, 1995.

Seven Years' War

2009-11-06T12:32:47Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The Seven Years War (1756-1763) was a military conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Prussia got into contact with Britain and on the 16th January 1756 the secret treaty between Prussia and Britain, securing the British alliance in war, was signed. This treaty led to an Austrian-French coalition because the French felt undermined by their former ally Frederic II of Prussia. During the war it was remarkable how representative the conflict became. In the 1740s, when the cause for the conflict emerged, it had been a struggle about the Austrian territory of Silesia, a territory of special economical importance for Prussia. But in the Seven Years' War the conflict escalated into a battle of the European superpowers, determining not only the political landscape in Europe but also in the colonies. Some historians consider that the constant fight for the colonies was heavily influenced by the military victory or defeat on the European battlefields. As an outcome Prussia was victorious in this war, but only because of the surprising military support of the Russian emperor Peter III. The Austrian Habsburg Empire finally had to hand over Silesia, a hard-fought territory for twenty-three years.

Bibliography:

Kunisch, Johannes. "Die militärische Bedeutung Schlesiens und das Scheitern der österreichischen Rückeroberungspläne im Siebenjährigen Krieg." Ed. Peter Baumgart. ''Kontinuität und Wandel. Schlesien zwischen Österreich und Preußen''. Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1990. 20-39.

Salmonowicz, Stanislaw. ''Preußen. Geschichte von Staat und Gesellschaft''. Herne: Stiftung Martin-Opitz-Bibliothek, 1995.

Talk:American Revolution

2009-11-06T12:23:42Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The slogan "No taxation without representation", coined by John Locke: really? I would like to have a source for this.

It was coined by Boston Reverend Jonathan Mayhew in 1750 according to Stefan Brandt's American Revolution Pop Quiz.

Talk:American Revolution

2009-11-06T12:23:28Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The slogan "No taxation without representation", coined by John Locke: really? I would like to have a source for this.

It was coined by Boston Reverend Jonathan Mayhew in 1750 acording to Stefan Brandt's American Revolution Pop Quiz.

American Revolution

2009-11-06T12:22:33Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The war between the American colonies from 1775-1783 against the English crown after which they gained their political freedom and formed the United States of America. It lead to the "Declaration of Independence" of 1776.

Reasons were various. The strongest cause was that after the so called "Seven Years War" with France the British government tried to impose the costs of the war onto its colonial subjects. They did so by increasing the taxes and caused the famous "Boston Tea Party". The tensions intensified with the motherland and thus the British imposed restrictive measures, like the Intolerable Acts and Coercive Acts (1774) which ruled that e.g. ports were closed or assemblies were prohibited.
Another reason for the war between the colonies and the crown was that people in the colonies were used to lead their lives without interference from London, since they had lived for several generations abroad. When the King began to levy taxes on the "Americans" and still did not give the people in the colonies members in parliament, they began to resist against this measure. The slogan "No taxation without representation", coined by Boston Reverend Jonathan Mayhew in 1750, gained more public support. Another ideological source for the revolutionaries was Thomas Paine with his work ''Common Sense'' (published January 1776) with its cause for human rights.
[Bruce Lancaster. ''The American Revolution''. American Heritage: NYC 2001, p. 2-4.] [Joseph C. Morton. "The American Revolution." Greenwood: Westport, 2003, p. 17-21.]
Accordingly, for McIlwain, the revolution was a constitutional resistance to political acts, namely the collection of taxes. [Charles Howard McIlwain. "The American Revolution: A Constitutional Interpretation." 2nd edition MacMillan: NYC 2006, p. 2.] For others, it was a war fought for breaking away from the monarchical system that dominated and influenced daily life.[Andrew Frank (Ed.). "American Revolution: people and perspectives." ABC: Santa Barbara, 2008.p. xii.]

Lancaster divides the American revolution into two phases: the first one ranges from 1763, when people started to realize that they could live without interference from the other side of the Atlantic until after they had gained control over some of the French parts. The second part is the actual war. According to Lancaster, the soldiers were driven by four motifs: faith in God, their country, their family and freedom. [Bruce Lancaster. ''The American Revolution''. American Heritage: NYC 2001, p. 3]

Most problematic for the "rebels" was how to finance their army, because they had no income from taxes. In the end, the Americans, lead by General George Washington, won against George III's professionally trained soldiers. Washington was well aware that the English easily outnumbered his troops and so he dragged them into situations advantageous to him and his men. [Bruce Lancaster. ''The American Revolution''. American Heritage: NYC 2001, p. 1-5.]

'''Sources''':
Fiske, John. ''The American Revolution''. New York: Adamant, 2005.

Jensen, Merrill. ''The Founding of A Nation. A History of the American Revolution 1763-1776''. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2004.

Lancaster, Bruce. ''The American Revolution''. New York: American Heritage, 2001.

McIlwain, Charles Howard. ''The American Revolution: A Constitutional Interpretation''. 2nd edition, London/New York: MacMillan, 2006.

Morton, Joseph C. ''The American Revolution''. Westport: Greenwood, 2003.

Frank, Andrew (Ed.). ''American Revolution: people and perspectives''. Santa Barbara: ABC, 2008.

Seven Years' War

2009-11-06T07:52:05Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a military conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Prussia got into contact with Britain and on the 16th January 1756 the secret treaty between Prussia and Britain, securing the British alliance in war, was signed. This treaty led to an Austrian-French coalition because the French felt undermined by their former ally Frederic II of Prussia. During the war it was remarkable how representative the conflict became. In the 1740ies, when the cause for the conflict emerged, it had been a struggle about the Austrian territory of Silesia, a territory of special economical importance for Prussia. But in the Seven Years' War the conflict escalated into a battle of the European superpowers, determining not only the political landscape in Europe but also in the colonies. Some historians consider that the constant fight for the colonies was heavily influenced by the military victory or defeat on the European battlefields. As an outcome Prussia was victorious in this war, but only because of the suprising military support of the Russian emperor Peter III. The Austrian Habsburg Empire finally had to hand over Silesia, a hard-fought territory for twenty-three years.

Bibliography:

Kunisch, Johannes. "Die militärische Bedeutung Schlesiens und das Scheitern der österreichischen Rückeroberungspläne im Siebenjährigen Krieg." Ed. Peter Baumgart. ''Kontinuität und Wandel. Schlesien zwischen Österreich und Preußen''. Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1990. 20-39.

Salmonowicz, Stanislaw. ''Preußen. Geschichte von Staat und Gesellschaft''. Herne: Stiftung Martin-Opitz-Bibliothek, 1995.

Seven Years' War

2009-11-05T14:55:53Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a military conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Prussia got into contact with Britain and on the 16th January 1756 the secret treaty between Prussia and Britain, securing the British alliance in war, was signed. This treaty led to an Austrian-French coalition because the French felt undermined by their former ally Frederic II of Prussia. During the war it was remarkable how representative the conflict became. In the 1740ies, when the cause for the conflict emerged, it had been a struggle about the Austrian territory of Silesia, a territory of special economical importance for Prussia. But in the Seven Years' War the conflict escalated into a battle of the European superpowers, determining not only the political landscape in Europe but also in the colonies. Some historians consider that the constant fight for the colonies was heavily influenced by the military victory or defeat on the European battlefields. As an outcome Prussia was victorious in this war, but only because of the suprising military support of the Russian emperor Peter III. The Austrian Habsburg Empire finally had to hand over Silesia, a hard-fought territory for twenty-six years.

Bibliography:

Kunisch, Johannes. "Die militärische Bedeutung Schlesiens und das Scheitern der österreichischen Rückeroberungspläne im Siebenjährigen Krieg." Ed. Peter Baumgart. ''Kontinuität und Wandel. Schlesien zwischen Österreich und Preußen''. Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1990. 20-39.

Salmonowicz, Stanislaw. ''Preußen. Geschichte von Staat und Gesellschaft''. Herne: Stiftung Martin-Opitz-Bibliothek, 1995.

Seven Years' War

2009-11-05T14:55:38Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a military conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Prussia got into contact with Britain and on the 16th January 1756 the secret treaty between Prussia and Britain, securing the British alliance in war, was signed. This treaty led to an Austrian-French coalition because the French felt undermined by their former ally Frederic II of Prussia. During the war it was remarkable how representative the conflict became. In the 1740ies, when the cause for the conflict emerged, it had been a struggle about the Austrian territory of Silesia, a territory of special economical importance for Prussia. But in the Seven Years' War the conflict escalated into a battle of the European superpowers, determining not only the political landscape in Europe but also in the colonies. Some historians consider that the constant fight for the colonies was heavily influenced by the military victory or defeat on the European battlefields. As an outcome Prussia was victorious in this war, but only because of the suprising military support of the Russian emperor Peter III. The Austrian Habsburg Empire finally had to hand over Silesia, a hard-fought territory for twenty-six years.

Bibliography:

Kunisch, Johannes. "Die militärische Bedeutung Schlesiens und das Scheitern der österreichischen Rückeroberungspläne im Siebenjährigen Krieg." Ed. Peter Baumgart. ''Kontinuität und Wandel. Schlesien zwischen Österreich und Preußen''. Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1990. 20-39.
Salmonowicz, Stanislaw. ''Preußen. Geschichte von Staat und Gesellschaft''. Herne: Stiftung Martin-Opitz-Bibliothek, 1995.

Seven Years' War

2009-11-05T14:55:28Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a military conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Prussia got into contact with Britain and on the 16th January 1756 the secret treaty between Prussia and Britain, securing the British alliance in war, was signed. This treaty led to an Austrian-French coalition because the French felt undermined by their former ally Frederic II of Prussia. During the war it was remarkable how representative the conflict became. In the 1740ies, when the cause for the conflict emerged, it had been a struggle about the Austrian territory of Silesia, a territory of special economical importance for Prussia. But in the Seven Years' War the conflict escalated into a battle of the European superpowers, determining not only the political landscape in Europe but also in the colonies. Some historians consider that the constant fight for the colonies was heavily influenced by the military victory or defeat on the European battlefields. As an outcome Prussia was victorious in this war, but only because of the suprising military support of the Russian emperor Peter III. The Austrian Habsburg Empire finally had to hand over Silesia, a hard-fought territory for twenty-six years.

Bibliography:
Kunisch, Johannes. "Die militärische Bedeutung Schlesiens und das Scheitern der österreichischen Rückeroberungspläne im Siebenjährigen Krieg." Ed. Peter Baumgart. ''Kontinuität und Wandel. Schlesien zwischen Österreich und Preußen''. Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1990. 20-39.
Salmonowicz, Stanislaw. ''Preußen. Geschichte von Staat und Gesellschaft''. Herne: Stiftung Martin-Opitz-Bibliothek, 1995.

Seven Years' War

2009-11-05T14:49:16Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

Seven Years' War

2009-11-05T14:46:59Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man:

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a military conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Empire. Prussia got into contact with Britain and on the 16th January 1756 the secret treaty between Prussia and Britain, securing the British alliance in war, was signed. This treaty led to an Austrian-French coalition because the French felt undermined by their former ally Frederic II of Prussia. In the war it was remarkable how representative the conflict became. In the 1740ies, when the conflict began, it was a struggle about the Austrian territory of Silesia, a territory of special economical importance for Prussia. But in the Seven Years' War the conflict escalated into a battle of the European superpowers, determining not only the political landscape in Europe but also in the colonies. Some historians considers, that the constant fight for the colonies was heavily influenced by the military victory or defeat on the European battlefields. As an outcome Prussia was victorious in this war, but only because of the suprising military support of the Russian emperor Peter III. Austria finally had to hand over Silesia, a hard-fought territory for twenty-six years.

Seven Years' War

2009-11-05T14:31:07Z

TheAmazingSpider-Man: Created page with 'The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a military conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Empire.'

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a military conflict between Prussia and the Austrian Habsburg Empire.