1. The Beginning of the Women´s Social and Political Union (WSPU)

Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel founded the WSPU in Manchester in 1903. In 1906 they moved WSPU headquarters to London. There they were supported by Mr. and Mrs. Pethick Lawrence, who in 1907 started to publish the WSPU´s newspaper Votes for Women. Furthermore, the Pethick Lawrences were wealthy and supported the WSPU financially.

1.1.The executive committee of the WSPU

Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst (president) Mrs. Emmeline Pethick Lawrence (treasurer) [left the WSPU in 1911 due to internal conflicts] Miss Christabel Pankhurst Mrs. Mabel Tuke (secretary)

2. The term “Suffragette”'

The term “Suffragette” had been introduced by the daily mail in 1906 as a derogatory label to distinguish the members of the WSPU from the members of the NUWSS, who were deemed respectable. Christabel Pankhurst claimed that “Suffragist” meant to want the vote and “Suffragette” meant taking action to get it.

3. Historical background: Ideology

In the Victorian era the ideological and structural constraints of women were based on pseudo-scientific ideas and beliefs which allegedly concerned the true nature of women. Women were considered to be mentally less stable and less intelligent. A woman was reduced to her reproductive function and thus her social role was confined to her sexuality, which determined her gender identity. Any attempt by women to rebel against that gender identity was considered unwomanly and unnatural. Dr. Henry Maudsley formulated the argument that education for women would result in mental deterioration and the destruction of women´s reproductive organs, which implicates that Suffragettes/Suffragists, who had other aims besides motherhood, were not normal women. Within the family gender roles were assigned and sexual identities were established. Any deviant behavior by women was considered a threat to the bourgeois family and the social life itself. Thus, the opposition against Women´s Suffrage was based on fear that Franchise for women would lead to women becoming Members of Parliament, judges, lawyers and the general expansion of the women´s sphere beyond the realm of the house and family. Opponents also argued that women´s involvement in politics would taint their innate purity and modesty. Suffragettes/ Suffragists were considered mentally ill, sexually abnormal and defective in intellect. With their unwomanly ways they forfeited respect from society and thus deserved to be hassled and disrespected in public. Especially militant tactics, which the WSPU frequently engaged in, were considered unwomanly and dangerous.

4. The Goals of the WSPU

Because of the restraints in women´s social life and gender identity, Suffragettes/ Suffragists demanded not only equal rights for men and women and general political equality for both sexes, but a thorough change in women´s self image and greater individual freedom for women. They also demanded the creation of a more positive image of female sexuality. Victorian society offered only two models for female sexuality, that of Mary, depicting the good and moral woman, and that of Eve, the embodiment of sexual greed and immortality. These two models, Suffragettes/ Suffragists claimed did not fit the realities of the majority of women and thus had to be altered.

5. The members of the WSPU

In 1903, due to Christabel Pankhurst´s close connections to female textile workers, the members of the WSPU were mainly female workers from Yorkshire and Lancashire. But the WSPU had aristocratic members as well, for instance Lady Constance Lytton. Later, the WSPU followed a similar campaign as the NUWSS, they wanted the vote on the same term as men, but working women would be excluded. The working class women who initially were drawn to join the WSPU and their promising slogan “Votes for Women” found this to be deceptive, because in meetings it became clear that they would still be excluded. The WSPU became a middle- class women society and alienated working class women. Still, the membership increased from 2900 members in 1906-07 to 33000 in 1909-10. The Suffrage Annual and Women´s Who´s Who published in 1913 provides historians with more accurate information about the members of suffrage societies. 692 women are listed with biographical information, level of education, age, marital status and affiliation with societies, family and hobbies. An analysis shows that most of the listed members of suffrage societies were from the upper and middle class. The greatest numbers of working members were teachers, writers, artists, nurses et.al. Only fourteen of the listed women were active in the Labour Movement, which indicates that the presence of working-class women was undercounted and their needs not voiced in the Who´s Who. The list also shows that the WSPU attracted more young women than other societies.

[5.1. Internal Crisis]]

The Pankhurst found it difficult to keep the activists in control when in 1908 new militant actions appeared without the approval of the leadership. Despite the Pankhurst´s aim to have a controlled army, in reality they had no real control over the Suffragettes, though they later engaged in the same militant tactics.

6. The WSPU`s militant tactics to win the vote

The WSPU differed greatly from the NUWSS in terms of tactics. Whereas the NUWSS rejected violent forms of protest, the WSPU followed a policy of “sensational public protest” (Kent 197) to gain the vote for women. The first big public demonstration of the WSPU took place in 1907 when 3000 women participated in the “Mud March” from Hyde Park, London to Exeter Hall. The women carried banners and were accompanied by brass bands. Until 1909 the militant action of the WSPU was non-violent. The Suffragettes obstructed political meetings and marched on Parliament to demand meetings with political figures. These marches on Parliament, or “raids” were conducted peacefully by the Suffragettes but often they experienced violence from the police. The women were usually knocked around and then arrested. In 1909 violent militant actions were taken up in form of stone-throwing at government houses and many Suffragettes began a hunger strike in prison in order to draw attention to their goals. The authorities responded with forced feeding, which led to a great outcry against the government. It was considered as analogy to rape and aided the Suffragettes efforts. Despite of these drastic measures, the Parliament´s response was discouraging. Prime Minister Herbert H. Asquith refused to back a women´s suffrage measure. In 1910, after the election, it seemed that a women´s suffrage bill had a chance at passing and in order to support the Conciliation Bill the WSPU called a truce and restrained militant tactics. The Bill passed it´ s second reading in July 1910 but Asquith hindered it´s coming any further. On 18 November 1910, as response to the failed Bill the Suffragettes, lead by Emmeline Pankhurst and Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, marched from Caxton Hill to Parliament where they were attacked by the police and sexually molested by the police and male bystanders. This day was called “Black Friday”.

The Conciliation Bill was revived in 1911 and again the WSPU called a truce. The Parliament threw over the Bill a second time and the WSPU immediately responded to this with acts of deliberate law-breaking. Emmeline Pankhurst, along with 200 other Suffragettes broke windows at 10 Downing Street and all over London. The police arrested 217 women and Mrs. Pankhurst and the Pethick Lawrences were charged with “inciting riots” (Kent 201). Mrs. Pankhurst and the Pethick Lawrences were sentenced to nine month in prison. All three of them began a hunger strike while in prison and became so ill that the authorities released them shortly after. Mrs. Pankhurst intended to continue violent attacks on political figures and their property and even considered the use of arson. The Pethick Lawrences objected to such measures and left the WSPU, taking the newspaper “Votes for Women” with them. The WSPU was left without a newspaper and thus Christabel Pankhurst started publishing the newspaper Suffragette instead. In 1912 the WSPU attacked private property and sought to antagonize public opinion because they believed that the public would be able to force the government to pass a new suffrage bill.

In January 1913 Asquith´s government introduced a manhood suffrage bill and announced that it would not permit a women´s suffrage amendment, which had been promised before. Outraged, the WSPU initiated another militant campaign. They burned down empty houses, threw bombs at churches and destroyed golf-courses. In February 1913 Mrs. Pankhurst was arrested and charged with inciting to commit a felony and was sentenced to prison for three years. Because the government anticipated another hunger strike, it passed what is known as “Cat and Mouse Act”. This act enabled officials to release Suffragettes who embarked on a hunger strike just to reincarcerate them after they recovered. By April 1914 Mrs. Pankhurst had conducted twelve hunger strikes and had served 30 days of her sentence.

7. The WSPU and the First World War

Christabel Pankhurst claimed that the war was God´s vengeance on a man-made conflict. Her mother ordered suffrage activities to be suspended. During the First World War Christabel Pankhurst and Emmeline Pankhurst expressed great patriotism. They devoted their time and energy towards the war effort. The Pankhurst identified the WSPU with the war effort, because Mrs. Pankhurst believed that “if women could not fight they should not vote” (Byles 474). Other suffrage societies, such as the NUWSS and Mrs. Pankhurst daughter Sylvia believed that peace would be best brought about by peaceful negotiation and not by militant tactics. Mrs. Pankhurst was of the opinion that to stand for peace would victimize them and raise opposition against the Suffrage cause, so Mrs. Pankhurst and Christabel continued to stimulate war enthusiasm and to recruit men for the army.

The war itself provided important opportunities for women of all classes to work outside the home, as munition workers, land-army workers, policewomen, doctors and nurses. The massive achievements of female doctors and nurses as well as other service auxiliaries had a great influence on public opinion in favor of women´s suffrage.

In 1916 suffrage societies from all over the country send deputations to Westminster to ensure a new Franchise Bill. On August 14th 1916 Prime Minister Asquith gave up his opposition to Women´s Suffrage and said that due to the aid women provided during the war women needs should be addressed. On 19th June 1917 the Presentation of the People Bill with Clause IV, i.e. Women´s Suffrage, passed with overwhelming majority. In December 1917 the Bill passed its´ Third Reading and giving the vote to women over the age of thirty, when they were householders or wives of householders, and to men over the age of twenty-one. That enfranchised 6 Million adult women. In 1928 women were given the vote over the age of twenty-one on the same terms as men.

Sources

Billington, Rosamund. "Ideology and Feminism: Why the Suffragettes were ´Wild Women`" Women´s Studies Int. Forum 5, No.6 (1982) 663-647.

Byles, Joan Montgomery. "Women´s Experience of World War One:Suffragists, Pacifists and Poets" Women´s Studies Int. Forum 8, No. 5 (1985)473-487.

Kent, Susan. Sex and Suffrage in Britain, 1860-1914.Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987.

Park, Jihang. "The British Suffrage Activists of 1913: An Analysis" Past & Present 120 (1988) 147-162.